Cannabis indica

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Cannabis indica Lam. is a historical botanical name for a form of the flowering plant species Cannabis sativa in the family Cannabaceae. It was described as a separate species by French botanist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1785, based on morphological characteristics of cannabis plants from the Indian subcontinent.[1]

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, recognises Cannabis sativa L. as the accepted species and treats Cannabis indica Lam. as a taxonomic synonym.[2] The combination Cannabis sativa subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist was published in 1976 as an alternative classification recognising indica at subspecies rank. Kew also treats this name as a synonym of C. sativa.[3]

The taxonomy of the genus Cannabis has historically been disputed, with botanical classifications recognising one, two or three species. Recent genomic research has increasingly supported a monotypic classification, treating the genus as comprising one highly variable species, Cannabis sativa.[1][4]

Taxonomy

In 1785, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a description of Cannabis indica as a separate species of Cannabis. His classification was based on morphological characteristics of specimens originating from the Indian subcontinent.[1]

Later botanists described morphological differences between plants traditionally classified as C. indica and C. sativa. In 1974, Richard Evans Schultes and colleagues characterised C. indica as relatively short, conical and densely branched, in contrast to the taller and more loosely branched plants associated with C. sativa.[5] In 1980, Loran C. Anderson described differences in leaflet shape, with traditionally recognised indica plants having shorter, broader leaflets than those associated with sativa.[6]

These morphological characteristics have historically been used to distinguish cannabis types, but they do not necessarily establish separate botanical species.

In 1976, Ernest Small and Arthur Cronquist proposed a classification recognising Cannabis sativa as one species with two subspecies: C. sativa subsp. sativa and C. sativa subsp. indica.[1]

The classification of cannabis continued to be debated as molecular and genomic techniques became available. A 2023 review by Lapierre, Monthony and Torkamaneh examined the historical classification systems and recent genomic evidence. The authors concluded that the available evidence increasingly favoured treating Cannabis as a single, highly diverse species.[1]

A 2025 phylogenomic study examined 88 wild-growing and landrace cannabis individuals using target-capture sequencing and whole-genome data. Analysis of 345 single-copy nuclear orthologs supported a monotypic genus comprising C. sativa. The researchers also identified three geographically structured genetic groups within the species and found evidence of extensive genetic admixture.[4]

Geographical distribution and historical associations

Plants historically described as C. indica have been associated with the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions of Central and South Asia, including the Hindu Kush mountain range. The geographical and morphological characteristics of these populations contributed to the historical distinction between indica and sativa classifications.[5][1]

The specific epithet indica is derived from Latin and refers to India.

Morphology

Traditional descriptions of indica-type cannabis generally characterise the plants as relatively short and densely branched, with broad leaflets. These characteristics were historically contrasted with the taller growth and narrower leaflets associated with sativa-type plants.[5][6]

However, cannabis exhibits considerable morphological variation, and plant characteristics can be influenced by genetic background and environmental conditions. Morphological differences alone are insufficient to establish separate species.

Genetic and chemical variation

Cannabis plants exhibit substantial genetic and chemical diversity. Their flowers contain varying concentrations of cannabinoids, including tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), as well as aromatic compounds known as terpenes.

A 2021 study by Watts and colleagues analysed more than 100 cannabis samples using over 100,000 genetic markers. The researchers found that samples labelled sativa and indica were genetically indistinct on a genome-wide scale. Instead, the labels were associated with variation in a relatively small number of terpenes and the genes involved in their production.[7]

These findings suggest that the contemporary commercial use of indica and sativa labels does not reliably represent the overall genetic ancestry or chemical composition of cannabis plants.

Modern usage

The terms indica and sativa remain widely used in cannabis horticulture, commerce and popular culture. They are commonly applied to describe perceived differences in plant morphology, aroma and reported effects.

Modern commercial classifications also include hybrids described as indica-dominant, sativa-dominant or balanced. These labels are not formal botanical taxonomic classifications and should not be interpreted as evidence of separate species.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lapierre, Éliana; Monthony, Adrian S.; Torkamaneh, Davoud (2023). "Genomics-based taxonomy to clarify cannabis classification". Genome. 66 (8): 202–211. doi:10.1139/gen-2023-0005. PMID 37163765.
  2. ↑ "Cannabis sativa L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
  3. ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
  4. 1 2 Balant, Manica; Vitales, Daniel; Wang, Zhiqiang; et al. (2025). "Integrating target capture with whole genome sequencing of recent and natural history collections to explain the phylogeography of wild-growing and cultivated cannabis". Plants, People, Planet. 7 (6): 1771–1788. Bibcode:2025PlPP....7.1771B. doi:10.1002/ppp3.70043.
  5. 1 2 3 Schultes, Richard Evans; Klein, William M.; Plowman, Timothy; Lockwood, Tom E. (1974). "Cannabis: an example of taxonomic neglect". Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets. 23 (9): 337–367. doi:10.5962/p.168565.
  6. 1 2 Anderson, Loran C. (1980). "Leaf variation among Cannabis species from a controlled garden". Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets. 28 (1): 61–69. doi:10.5962/p.168641.
  7. ↑ Watts, Sophie; McElroy, Michel; Migicovsky, Zoë; Maassen, Hugo; van Velzen, Robin; Myles, Sean (2021). "Cannabis labelling is associated with genetic variation in terpene synthase genes". Nature Plants. 7 (10): 1330–1334. Bibcode:2021NatPl...7.1330W. doi:10.1038/s41477-021-01003-y. PMC 8516649. PMID 34650264.

Notes

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