User:Shawndouglas/sandbox/sublevel9
We continue to look at 20 broad industry categories and the laboratories associated with them. For each you'll find a brief description with common services and how the lab type affects the average person. As discussed previously, using our client type + function model we dig into examples found in the private, government, and academic sectors and then outline function through activities, sciences, test types, equipment, and unique attributes.
Labs by industry: Part 2
Clinical and academic research
Clinical research laboratories provide a regulated environment for the testing of the safety and efficacy of a variety of medical treatments and diagnostic devices, including medications, implants, and physician test kits. These facilities form the backbone of today's effective medical treatments, from cholesterol-lowering medications to pacemakers for the heart. In the U.S., these types of labs are overseen by the Food and Drug Administration, unlike the previously mentioned clinical and public health laboratories. Clinical research labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to)[1][2]:
- clinical studies
- bioequivalence studies
- study design and management
- high-volume specimen testing
- custom assay development
- test kit development and supply
Clinical studies and trials aside, other types of research may require laboratory services as well. (For the purposes of this guide, we refer to it as "academic research," a broad catch-all category for other research involving laboratories that doesn't readily fit into other industry categories.) Take for example the archeology laboratory, which is responsible for cleaning, analyzing, and identifying artifacts and remains from various sites either as part of a greater research effort or as a contract laboratory service.[3][4] Research in information technology and communication also occurs in (dry) laboratories; examples include the privately owned Nokia Bell Laboratory[5] and the university-affiliated University of New Hampshire InterOperability Laboratory.[6]
How do clinical and academic research laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis? If you've had a medical device implanted, taken a prescription medication, visited an archeological exhibit in a museum, or experienced improvements in how you communicate with others, then you've been touched by a clinical or academic research laboratory. Without these facilities we'd have fewer medications and assistive devices, and by extension shorter life spans. We'd know less about humanity's past growth and development, and we'd lack the technology to rapidly disseminate those findings around the globe.
Client types
Private - Private clinical research labs are most often "central laboratories" (see the end of this section for more on this term) that are contracted by pharmaceutical companies and medical device manufacturers.
Examples include:
Government - These labs are typically set up by a government agency to perform specific research into medical conditions such as cancer, depression, or HIV infection.
Examples include:
- Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research
- NIH Clinical Trial Center
- Office of Regulatory Affairs' Field Laboratories
Academic - Many academic institutions set up their own clinical research activities, often within an affiliated medical center. These research efforts often serve as training grounds for students to learn more about clinical research and its administration.
Examples include:
- Johns Hopkins Clinical Research Unit Core Laboratory
- University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus
- Washington University Clinical Research Laboratory
Functions
What are the most common functions? research/design, clinical studies, contract lab work
What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed and researched? artifacts, biological specimens, communication networks, medical devices, etc. (depending on academic discipline practiced in the lab)
What sciences are being applied in these labs? archeology, clinical research, information theory, etc. (depending on academic discipline practiced in the lab)
What are some examples of test types and equipment?
Common test types include:
Absorption, Acoustic startle, Acute contact, Acute oral, Acute toxicity, Adhesion, Age determination, Amino acid analysis, Angle of repose, Antimicrobial, Antigen, Behavioral, Blood culture, Blood gases, Bioavailability, Bioburden, Biocompatibility, Bioequivalence, Biomechanical, Biomolecular, Biosafety, Calorimetry, Carcinogenicity, Clinical diagnostic, Colorimetric, Compaction, Compendial, Complete blood count, Cytology, Cytopathology, Cytotoxicity, Detection, Developmental and reproductive toxicology, Dietary exposure, Ecotoxicology, Efficacy, Electrolyte and mineral panel, Electromagnetic compatibility, Electromagnetic interference, Electrophoresis, Endocrine disruptor screening program, Endotoxin, Environmental fate, Environmental metabolism, Extractables and leachables, Feasibility, Fluid dynamics, Functional observational battery, Genetic, Genotoxicity, Hematocrit, Hemoglobin, Hematotoxicity, Human factors, Immunohistochemistry, Impact, Impurity, Inhalation, Irritation, Kidney function, Learning and memory, Lipid profile, Liver function, Locomotor activity, Metabolic, Microfluidics, Minimum bactericidal concentration, Minimum inhibitory concentration, Nanoparticulate, Neurotoxicity, Nutritional, Osmolality, Osmolarity, Oxidation reduction potential, Oxidation stability, Parasitic, Pathogen, Pathogenicity, pH, Pharmacokinetic, Phototoxicity, Protein analysis, Protein characterization, Red blood cell count, Refractive index, Sensitization, Solubility, Specific gravity, Thyroid function, Toxicokinetic, Urine culture, Validation, Verification, Virucidal efficacy, Wildlife toxicology
Industry-related lab equipment may include:
autoclave, balance, biohazard container, biosafety cabinet, centrifuge, chromatographic, clinical chemistry analyzer, colorimeter, desiccator, dissolved oxygen meter, dry bath, electrophoresis system, ELISA plate reader, fluorometer, freezers, fume hood, genetic analyzer and sequencer, homogenizer, hotplate, incubator, magnetic stirrer, mass spectrometry equipment, microcentrifuge tube, microplate reader, microscope, multi-well plate, orbital shaker, PCR machine, personal protective equipment, pH meter, Petri dish, pipettor, powered air purifying respirators, refractometer, spectrophotometer, syringes, test tube and rack, thermal cycler, thermometer, urinalysis device, water bath
What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the clinical and academic research fields? It's important to note that some clinical research laboratories may be referred to as "central laboratories." Though mentioned occasionally in its regulation and guidance, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration doesn't seem to provide a definition of the term. However, it seems to be used by some in the context of an analytical laboratory that provides analyses of biological specimens associated with clinical and bioequivalence studies (including multi-site studies, prompting the idea of a "central" lab handling sample analysis) performed at medical institutions.[1][7]
LIMSwiki resources
Cosmetic
Cosmetic labs provide research and development as well as quality control functions to the world of cosmetics. From makeups and moisturizers to hair dyes and lipsticks, the cosmetic laboratory is responsible for making safe and effective products of many types. Cosmetic chemists tend to mostly work in private laboratories or as part of a private-public research partnership, though some work in academic labs.[8] Cosmetic labs are found largely in the private sector, though they exist in the government and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to):
- formulation and development of products[8]
- safety testing of products[8]
- process engineering improvement[8]
- chemical and material research[8]
- substantiation of compatibility and efficacy claims[9]
- allergy testing
- contaminate testing
How do cosmetic laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis? In private industry, cosmetic scientists are tasked with creating a safe product free from contaminates and allergens that may negatively affect a user. At the higher government level, some labs are responsible for substantiating manufacturer claims, testing cosmetics, and even manufacturing cosmetic components[9]; the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for example, certifies some color additives as safe for consumers in its own lab.[10] Without these labs, the soaps, shampoos, moisturizers, and makeup on the market wouldn't likely exist, or if they did, they would be of unknown quality, posing a threat to human health. When we use such a product, we are reminded that a laboratory was at some point involved in its creation.
Client types
Private - Private cosmetic labs are either found as part of a major company initiative (think L’Oréal Group and its laboratories[11]) or as a third-party contract lab that provides development, manufacturing, and consulting services to clients.
Examples include:
Government - Governments around the world differ in how they regulate and test cosmetics. Though not common, some governments will dedicate space for laboratory testing, certification of constituents, and testing of efficacy and compatibility claims.[9][10]
Examples include:
- Ghana Food and Drugs Authority, Cosmetic Laboratory
- Government of Odisha's Central Cosmetic Testing Laboratory
- Singapore Health Sciences Authority's Cosmetics Laboratory
Academic - Academic programs in cosmetic science aren't abundant, but they can be found. (The Society of Cosmetic Chemists lists a few U.S.-based programs here.) The laboratories associated with this course of study are presumably similar in makeup to a chemistry teaching laboratory in a typical university, with a few additions, including research facilities.
Examples include:
- Farleigh Dickinson University Cosmetic Science Programs
- University of Cincinnati Cosmetic Science Programs
- North-West University Cosmetics Efficacy Laboratory
Functions
What are the most common functions? analytical, research/design, QA/QC, and teaching
What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being calibrated, researched, and quality controlled? colorants, dyes, emulsions, lacquers, polymers, silicones, surfactants
What sciences are being applied in these labs? biochemistry, biology, chemical engineering, chemistry, cosmetic science, macromolecular science, pharmaceutical science, process engineering
What are some examples of test types and equipment?
Common test types include:
Absorption, Allergy, Antimicrobial, Bioburden, Biocompatibility, Comparison, Compliance/Conformance, Composition, Contamination, Detection, Efficacy, Expiration dating, Flammability, Fluorescence, Formulation, Fragrance, Impurity, Ingredient, Irritation, Labeling, Oxidation reduction potential, Oxidation stability, Pathogen, Performance, pH, Photostability, Preservative challenge, Proficiency, Purity, Pyrogenicity, Quality control, Safety, Sensitization, Stability, Water activity
Industry-related lab equipment may include:
autoclave, balance, chromatographic, digital imaging devices, ESR spectroscopy equipment, fluorescent laser scan microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy equipment, microscope, multiphotone tomography equipment, pH meter, Raman spectroscopy equipment, test tube and rack, thermometer, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) instrumentation
What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the cosmetic industry? In the U.S., whereas the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) regulates clinical laboratory testing[12], the FDA regulates cosmetic laboratories.[13] Regulation of cosmetic laboratories in other countries varies; in Singapore, for example, the Health Sciences Authority helps enforce cosmetic testing of its Health Products Act.[14]
LIMSwiki resources
- None
Energy
The energy laboratory is largely a place for the research and development of energy sources and devices, though it also is a place for researchers to focus on improving energy efficiency in current fuels, systems, and structures. These labs are found in the government and academic sectors, and occasionally in the private sector, providing many different services, including (but not limited to)[15]:
- chemical and biomolecular engineering
- applied research and development
- analysis and improvement of energy efficiency
- analysis and improvement of transportation systems
- development of energy systems
- discovery and development of materials
- integration of energy systems
How do energy laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis? "I want my phone's battery to last longer!" you shout, as you put it on the charger for the second time in a day. The truth is your device probably has a better battery life than the generation before it, and the generation before it, etc., but you're at the same time making it do more demanding tasks than it used to at the same time. Yet advances continue to be made in energy storage.[16] You can thank an energy laboratory and its scientists for that and similar advances that affect you on a daily basis.
Client types
Private - Private laboratories tend to focus on a company's R&D or provide third-party analysis of materials used as fuel sources.
Examples include:
Government - Along with academic labs, government labs (public and public-private) make up the majority of energy laboratories and typically provide much of the funding for energy research, at least in the United States.[17]
Examples include:
- National Energy Technology Laboratory
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory
- U.S. Geological Survey's Geochemistry Laboratory
Academic - Higher education continues to be a major source for the study, research, and application of energy sources and equipment. From the optimization of commercial and industrial buildings to alternative fuels and clean energy systems, the academic-affiliated energy lab is pushing energy science forward at a significant pace.
Examples include:
- Texas A&M's Energy Systems Laboratory
- University of California - Berkeley's Renewable & Appropriate Energy Laboratory
- University of Hawaii at Manoa's Hawaii Natural Energy Institute
Functions
What are the most common functions? analytical, research/design, and QA/QC, and teaching
What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being calibrated, researched, and quality controlled? biomass, emissions, energy efficiency, energy storage and retrieval, hydropower, petrochemicals, solar energy, thermal energy, thin films, wind power
What sciences are being applied in these labs? chemical engineering, chemistry, engineering, environmental science, material science, mechanical design, microbiology, thermodynamics
What are some examples of test types and equipment?
Common test types include:
Accelerated stress testing, Aging, Calorimetry, Characterization, Climatics, Combustion, Contact mechanics, Contamination, Degredation, Design verification testing, Dielectric withstand, Durability, Efficiency, Electromagnetic compatibility, Electromagnetic interference, Electrostatic discharge, Emissions, Endurance, Flash point, Fluid dynamics, Friction, Geothermal, Hydraulic, Lightning, Mechanical, Mechanical durability, Power quality, Proficiency, Resistance - capacitance - inductance, Solar, Temperature, Thermal, Torque, Validation, Velocity and flow, Voltage
Industry-related lab equipment may include:
calorimeter, climate test chamber, gas turbine, geothermal energy absorber, hydrogen fuel cell, impulse turbine, light sensor, photovoltaic trainer/system, plasma light system, porosimeter, reaction turbine, solar thermal system, temperature sensor, viscometer, wind turbine
What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the energy industry? By and far, energy laboratories seem to have the most prominent footprint in the government and academic sectors. Privately run energy laboratories exist but appear to be the minority, appearing as either R&D labs inside a larger manufacturing company or as niche third-party testing facilities for biomass and/or petrochemicals. As an aside, since agriculture and forest biomass[18] as well as petrochemicals can be used as fuel sources, the energy industry has ties to the agriculture, forestry, and petrochemical industries. Of course, the power and utility industry — which focuses on large-scale energy solutions for communities — is closely linked as well.
LIMSwiki resources
- None
Environmental
Environmental laboratories are responsible for the analysis and research of a wide variety of materials and environments with the purpose of promoting human, animal, and ecosystem health. These labs also act as compliance enforcement entities for regulators. These labs provide services to energy and utility companies, engineering firms, pharmaceutical companies, governments, and other industry forces. These labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to):
- exposure testing[19]
- field testing[19]
- radiological testing[20][21]
- heavy metals testing[19]
- air quality monitoring[19]
- environmental assessments[19]
- environmental engineering[22]
How do environmental laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis? The easiest way environmental labs tie into the average person's life is through the potable water supply. Without these labs, more people would become ill or even die due to improperly or non-treated drinking water supplies. We need not look further than the Flint, Michigan water crisis, where improper funding for testing and treatment of contaminated water led to the metal lead leaching into the drinking water.[23] It may be easy to take clean drinking water for granted, but remember that a lab is most likely in place to ensure it's clean in the first place.
Client types
Private - Private environmental labs cater to industry and the government, providing third-party testing services, often under contract.
Examples include:
Government - Government-affiliated labs not only provide analytical services for states and municipalities; they also may conduct academic and field research to better guide local, state, and federal environmental policy.
Examples include:
- Minnesota Department of Health's Environmental Laboratory
- Saint Louis County Environmental Health Laboratories
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
Academic - The environmental labs affiliated with higher education are usually researched-based, though they may occasionally provide third-party analyses. These labs are often directly affiliated with a local or even international watershed or ecosystem, providing valuable field training to students while monitoring changes to the location over time and issuing public reports.
Examples include:
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki's Environmental Engineering Laboratory
- SUNY Plattsburgh's Lake Champlain Research Institute
- William & Mary's Keck Environmental Field Laboratory
Functions
What are the most common functions? analytical, research/design, QA/QC, and teaching
What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed, researched, and quality controlled? acoustics, air quality, allergens, biological specimens, contaminates, finished products, hazardous waste, pesticides, raw materials, sediment, soil, solid waste, water quality
What sciences are being applied in these labs? chemistry, chemical engineering, environmental engineering, environmental science, microbiology, organic and inorganic chemistry, radiation chemistry
What are some examples of test types and equipment?
Common test types include:
Absorption, Acute contact, Acute oral, Acute toxicity, Allergy, Anion, Antimicrobial, Atterberg limits, Bioaccumulation, Bioavailability, Bioburden, Biodegradation, Chemical and biochemical oxygen demand, Colorimetric, Conductivity, Consolidation, Contamination, Decomposition, Degradation, Density, Ecotoxicology, Emissions, Environmental fate, Environmental metabolism, Environmental monitoring, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Humidity, Hydraulic conductivity, Isotope analysis, Leak, Metallurgical analysis, Minimum bactericidal concentration, Minimum inhibitory concentration, Mobility, Organic carbon, Oxidation reduction potential, Permeability, pH, Photostability, Plant metabolism, Pressure, Proficiency, Radioactivity, Radiochemical, Refractive index, Seismic, Sensory, Soil microflora, Specific gravity, Temperature, Terrestrial toxicology, Turbidity, Wildlife toxicology
Industry-related lab equipment may include:
balance, Bunsen burner, burette, colorimeter, centrifuge, chromatographic, crucible, desiccator, dropper, enzyme immunoassay, Erlenmeyer flask, extractor, Florence flask, flow meter, fume hood, funnel, graduated cylinder, hot plate, moisture analyzer, mortar and pestle, multi-well plate, organic carbon analyzer, oven, particle counter, pH meter, pipestem triangle, reagent dispenser, remote sensors, ring stand, rotary evaporator, sediment analyzer, spectrometer, spectrophotometer, stirring rod, thermometer, viscometer
What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the environmental industry? "The environmental laboratory industry will be undergoing continuous radical change in coming years as environmental markets continue to evolve," stated Bangert and Lynch in a 1996 study for the National Research Council. "The model laboratory of the future, therefore, is likely to be far different from that of today," they added.[19] Fast forward 20 years, and we see their then vision for the future of environmental testing labs came to fruition: today's environmental testing lab uses a laboratory information management system (LIMS) to manage data in an automated, innovative lab that provides analytical services as well as research.[19][24] And they need to be agile as the concepts of "climate change," "biodiversity," and "sustainable ecosystems" continue to weave their way into the focus of environmental laboratories.[25][26] As such, these labs will play an ever-increasing role in helping scientists better understand how we are impacting our environment.
LIMSwiki resources
Further reading
- vanLoon, G.W.; Duffy, S.J. (2011). Environmental Chemistry: A Global Perspective. Oxford University Press. pp. 545. ISBN 9780199228867. https://books.google.com/books?id=VUCcAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover.
Food and beverage
Food and beverage laboratories are responsible for developing, protecting, and supporting the food, beverages, and nutritional supplements humans and animals consume. From creating new flavor enhancers for food to ensuring the quality and safe consumption of a wine, these labs play a vital role in most parts of the world where processed food and agricultural products are produced. These labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to)[27]:
- reverse engineering
- claims testing
- contaminate testing
- batch variation testing
- extractable and leachable testing
- allergen testing
- shelf life testing
- non-routine quality testing
- packaging testing
How do food and beverage laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis? Have you ever enjoyed a candy bar, soda, or snack cake? A laboratory and food scientists were behind its production. Don't care much for processed foods? A laboratory is still involved in the quality and safety testing of raw fruits and vegetables, milk, and nuts. And when food supplies become contaminated, government testing labs are often in the thick of determining the source of the contamination as quickly as possible before more people become ill. Whether it's the unique flavor profile of a potato chip you love or the fact you can reliably acquire safe foods, remember that a laboratory is often behind it.
Client types
Private - Whether manufacturers seek help with a formulation problem or a government subcontracting contamination analysis, private food and beverage labs are there. These labs may appear within a major food corporation or act as third-party contact labs for work as needed.
Examples include:
Government - The government-affiliated labs of the food and beverage industry typically act as protectors of the local, regional, or national food supply. Some may be responsible for developing and enforcing regulations as well.
Examples include:
- Agi-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore's Food and Food Product Laboratory
- Missouri State Public Health Laboratory, Chemistry Unit
- Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture Food Safety Laboratory Division
Academic - Academic food and beverage labs are usually teaching labs, often associated with a university's agriculture department.
Examples include:
- Colorado State University Brewing Science and Food Microbiology Laboratory
- University of Maryland, Joint Institute for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition's International Food Safety Training Lab
- VirginiaTech's Food Analysis, Meat Chemistry, and Enology Laboratories
Functions
What are the most common functions? analytical, research/design, QA/QC, and teaching
What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed, researched, and quality controlled? candy, dairy, fruits, grains, meats, nuts, oils, proteins, soft drinks, starches, sugars, vegetables, vitamins
What sciences are being applied in these labs? biochemistry, chemical engineering, chemistry, fermentation science, microbiology, molecular gastronomy, nutrition and food science
What are some examples of test types, terminology, and equipment?
Common test types include:
Absorption, Active ingredient, Alcohol level, Allergy, Altitude, Amino acid analysis, Ash, Bioavailability, Bioburden, Biodegradation, Biomolecular, Boiling - freezing - melting point, Comparison, Compliance/Conformance, Contamination, Density, Detection, Efficacy, Expiration dating, Extractables and leachables, Flavor, Fluid dynamics, Fluorescence, Fragrance, Genotoxicity, GMO detection, HACCP, Hazard analysis, Identification, Ingredient, Iodine value, Isotope analysis, Labeling, Moisture, Mold - fungal - mycotoxin, Mutagenicity, Nutritional, Oxidation reduction potential, Oxidation stability, Pathogen, PDCAAS, Permeability, Peroxide value, pH, Plant metabolism, Polarimetry, Preservative challenge, Proficiency, Purity, Quality control, Radioactivity, Radiochemical, Refractive index, Safety, Sanitation, Saponification value, Sensory, Shelf life, Smoke point, Sulfide, Thermal, Total viable count, Turbidity, Viscosity, Water activity
Industry-related lab equipment may include:
alcohol analyzer, balance, biosafety cabinet, centrifuge, chiller, chromatographic, colorimeter, ELISA equipment, evaporator, fat analyzer, freezer, fume hood, gravimetric diluter, hot/forced air oven, incubator, Kjeldahl digestion apparatus, laminar airflow workstation, media sterilizer, microscope, moisture analyzer, muffle furnace, Petri dish, photometric analyzer, protein analyzer, refractometer, spectrometer, titrator
What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the food and beverage industry? As previously mentioned in the agriculture section, the food and beverage industry has strong ties to the agriculture industry, though broadly speaking the food and beverage industry is typically dealing with the end products of agriculture.
While most industries see global standards coalesce around their industry, this holds especially true for food and beverage laboratories. Given the vital nature of a clean and safe food supply, regulation and global standardization remains a strong goal for the industry.[28]
LIMSwiki resources
- None
Further reading
- Bhat, R.; Gomez-Lopez, V.M., ed. (2014). Practical Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 632. ISBN 9781118474594. https://books.google.com/books?id=14VPAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover.
- da Silva, N.; Taniwaki, M.H.; Junqueria, V.C. et al. (2012). Microbiological Examination Methods of Food and Water: A Laboratory Manual. CRC Press. pp. 484. ISBN 9780203168394. https://books.google.com/books?id=duFMBgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Definition of Central Laboratory". First Clinical Research. First Clinical Research, LLC. 19 April 2004. https://firstclinical.com/fda-gcp/?show=2004/Definition+of+Central+Laboratory. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ Minor, L.K., ed. (2006). "Handbook of Assay Development in Drug Discovery". CRC Press. pp. 488. ISBN 9781420015706. https://books.google.com/books?id=RmrLBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover.
- ↑ "Archeology Laboratory". Augustana University. http://www.augie.edu/archeology-laboratory. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "Archeology Laboratory". Saint Louis University. http://www.slu.edu/department-of-sociology-and-anthropology/research-labs-and-facilities/archaeology-laboratory. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "History - Bell Labs". Nokia Group. https://www.bell-labs.com/explore/history-bell-labs/. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "UNH-IOL FAQ". University of New Hampshire InterOperability Laboratory. https://www.iol.unh.edu/about/faq. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ Karelin, A.; Belotserkovskiy, M.; Khokhlova, V.; Kumar, A. (6 May 2013). "Selecting a Central Laboratory". Contract Pharma. Rodman Media, Inc. http://www.contractpharma.com/issues/2013-05/view_features/selecting-a-central-laboratory/. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Browne, C.. "The Job Description of a Cosmetic Chemist". Chron. Hearst Newspapers, LLC. http://work.chron.com/job-description-cosmetic-chemist-17987.html. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "CEL". North-West University. http://health-sciences.nwu.ac.za/pharmaceutical-and-biomedical-services/cel. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Small Businesses & Homemade Cosmetics: Fact Sheet". Food and Drug Administration. 5 October 2016. https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/resourcesforyou/industry/ucm388736.htm. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "L’Oréal USA Research And Innovation". L’Oréal Group. http://www.lorealusa.com/group/discover-l%27or%C3%A9al-usa/l%E2%80%99or%C3%A9al-usa-research-and-innovation. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)". Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. 5 April 2017. https://www.cms.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Legislation/CLIA/index.html. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "FDA Authority Over Cosmetics: How Cosmetics Are Not FDA-Approved, but Are FDA-Regulated". Food and Drug Administration. 15 November 2016. https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/guidanceregulation/lawsregulations/ucm074162.htm. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "Cosmetics". Health Sciences Authority. 17 July 2014. http://www.hsa.gov.sg/content/hsa/en/Applied_Sciences/Pharmaceuticals_Cosmetics_Tobacco/Overview/Cosmetics.html. Retrieved 01 June 2017.
- ↑ "Research". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC. https://www.nrel.gov/research/. Retrieved 02 June 2017.
- ↑ Argonne National Laboratory (31 March 2016). "Researchers continue to pave way for improved battery performance testing". Phys.org. Science X. https://phys.org/news/2016-03-pave-battery.html. Retrieved 02 June 2017.
- ↑ Kotok, A. (14 July 2006). "Financing Your Research in Alternative Energy". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. http://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2006/07/financing-your-research-alternative-energy. Retrieved 02 June 2017.
- ↑ "Forest Biorefinery - Introduction". Forest Products Laboratory. U.S. Forest Service. https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/research/research_emphasis_areas/introduction.php?rea_id=3. Retrieved 02 June 2017.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 Bangert, C.E.; Lynch, R.A. (1996). "Risk & Innovation: Small Companies in Six Industries: Background Papers Prepared for the NAE Risk and Innovation Study". National Academies Press. pp. 83–108. doi:10.17226/9191. https://www.nap.edu/read/9191/chapter/6.
- ↑ "Environmental Laboratory". Minnesota Department of Health. http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/phl/environmental/. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ "Environmental Laboratories". Saint Louis County. http://www.stlouisco.com/HealthandWellness/EnvironmentalServices/EnvironmentalLaboratories. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ "Welcoming Letter: Message from the director Prof. Dimosthenis A. Sarigiannis". EnvE-Lab. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. http://www.enve-lab.eu/index.php/about/welcoming-letter/. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ "Flint Water Crisis Fast Facts". CNN. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. 10 April 2017. http://www.cnn.com/2016/03/04/us/flint-water-crisis-fast-facts/. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ DePalma, A. (10 September 2013). "Insights on Starting and Running an Environmental Lab". Lab Manager. LabX Media Group. http://www.labmanager.com/insights/2013/09/insights-on-starting-and-running-an-environmental-lab. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ Simmonds, J. (June 2009). "The Importance of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis". King County's SciFYI. King County. http://your.kingcounty.gov/dnrp/library/water-and-land/science/newsletter/2009/june/0906-3-monitoring-import.pdf. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ "Environmental Laboratory". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers - Engineer Research & Development Center. http://www.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/Fact-Sheets/Fact-Sheet-Article-View/Article/476745/environmental-laboratory/. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
- ↑ Nielsen, S. (2015). Food Analysis Laboratory Manual (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 177. ISBN 9781441914620.
- ↑ Nita, I. (18 January 2017). "Global Standards Impacting Food and Beverage Processors". Food Safety Magazine. http://www.foodsafetymagazine.com/signature-series/global-standards-impacting-food-and-beverage-processors/. Retrieved 03 June 2017.
