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In this and the following three parts, we take a look at 20 broad industry categories and the laboratories associated with them. For each you'll find a brief description with common services and how the lab type affects the average person. As discussed previously, using our client type + function model we dig into examples found in the private, government, and academic sectors and then outline function through activities, sciences, test types, equipment, and unique attributes.
<div class="nonumtoc">__TOC__</div>
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<div align="center">-----Return to [[LII:The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!|the beginning]] of this guide-----</div>
==Sandbox begins below==
__TOC__
==1. Introduction to materials and materials testing laboratories==


==3. Labs by industry: Part 1==
What is a material? This question is surprisingly more complex for the layperson than may be expected. The definition of "material" has varied significantly over the years, dependent on the course of study, laboratory, author, etc. A 1974 definition by Richardson and Peterson that has seen some use in academic study defines a material as "any nonliving matter of academic, engineering, or commercial importance."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richardson |first=James H. |last2=Peterson |first2=Ronald V. |date= |year=1974 |title=Systematic Materials Analysis, Part 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNocpYI8gJkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Systematic+Materials+analysis&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjB1OeQx-aAAxWnmmoFHSV2BSsQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=Systematic%20Materials%20analysis&f=false |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction to Analytical Methods |series=Materials science series |publisher=Academic Press |place=New York |page=2 |isbn=978-0-12-587801-2 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-587801-2.X5001-0}}</ref> But recently biomaterials like biopolymers (as replacements for plastics)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Das |first=Abinash |last2=Ringu |first2=Togam |last3=Ghosh |first3=Sampad |last4=Pramanik |first4=Nabakumar |date=2023-07 |title=A comprehensive review on recent advances in preparation, physicochemical characterization, and bioengineering applications of biopolymers |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00289-022-04443-4 |journal=Polymer Bulletin |language=en |volume=80 |issue=7 |pages=7247–7312 |doi=10.1007/s00289-022-04443-4 |issn=0170-0839 |pmc=PMC9409625 |pmid=36043186}}</ref> and even natural<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kurniawan |first=Nicholas A. |last2=Bouten |first2=Carlijn V.C. |date=2018-04 |title=Mechanobiology of the cell–matrix interplay: Catching a glimpse of complexity via minimalistic models |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352431617301864 |journal=Extreme Mechanics Letters |language=en |volume=20 |pages=59–64 |doi=10.1016/j.eml.2018.01.004}}</ref> and engineered biological tissues<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Hyun S. |last2=Kumbar |first2=Sangamesh G. |last3=Nukavarapu |first3=Syam P. |date=2021-03 |title=Biomaterial-directed cell behavior for tissue engineering |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S246845112030057X |journal=Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering |language=en |volume=17 |pages=100260 |doi=10.1016/j.cobme.2020.100260 |pmc=PMC7839921 |pmid=33521410}}</ref> may be referenced as "materials." (And to Richardson and Peterson's credit, they do add in the preface of their 1974 work that "[a]lthough the volumes are directed toward the physical sciences, they can also be of value for the biological scientist with materials problems."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richardson |first=James H. |last2=Peterson |first2=Ronald V. |date= |year=1974 |title=Systematic Materials Analysis, Part 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNocpYI8gJkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Systematic+Materials+analysis&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjB1OeQx-aAAxWnmmoFHSV2BSsQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=Systematic%20Materials%20analysis&f=false |chapter=Preface |series=Materials science series |publisher=Academic Press |place=New York |page=xiii |isbn=978-0-12-587801-2 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-587801-2.X5001-0}}</ref> A modern example would be biodegradable materials research for tissue and medical implant engineering.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Modrák |first=Marcel |last2=Trebuňová |first2=Marianna |last3=Balogová |first3=Alena Findrik |last4=Hudák |first4=Radovan |last5=Živčák |first5=Jozef |date=2023-03-16 |title=Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering: Development, Classification and Current Applications |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4983/14/3/159 |journal=Journal of Functional Biomaterials |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=159 |doi=10.3390/jfb14030159 |issn=2079-4983 |pmc=PMC10051288 |pmid=36976083}}</ref>) Yet today more questions arise. what of matter that doesn't have "academic, engineering, or commercial importance"; can it now be called a "material" in 2023? What if a particular matter exists today but hasn't been thoroughly studied to determine its value to researchers and industrialists? Indeed, the definition of "material" today is no easy task. This isn't made easier when even modern textbooks introduce the topic of materials science without aptly defining what a material actually is<ref>{{Cite book |last=Callister |first=William D. |last2=Rethwisch |first2=David G. |date= |year=2021 |title=Fundamentals of materials science and engineering: An integrated approach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NC09EAAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover |chapter=Chapter 1. Introduction |publisher=Wiley |place=Hoboken |pages=2–18 |isbn=978-1-119-74773-4}}</ref>, let alone what materials science is.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutton |first=Adrian P. |date=2021 |title=Concepts of materials science |edition=First edition |publisher=Oxford University Oress |place=Oxford [England] ; New York, NY |isbn=978-0-19-284683-9}}</ref> Perhaps the writers of said textbooks assume that the definitions of "material" and "materials science" have a "well duh" response.
===Agriculture and forestry===
[[File:Unload wheat by the combine Claas Lexion 584.jpg|left|400px]]
{{clear}}
[[Laboratory|Laboratories]] within the agriculture and forestry industry are focused on analyzing, improving, and ensuring the safety of the various plants, animals, and fungi that are cultivated or bred to sustain and enhance human life. These labs provide a solid foundation for the safety and security of what can at times be a large network of food and plant-based resources, particularly for large countries with temperate climates.<ref name="FAO_GAEZ">{{cite web |url=https://gaez.fao.org/pages/modules |title=GAEZ v4 Themes |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> They are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including:


* analysis and assessment of seeds and soils<ref name="GliessmanField07">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pENYREeyGHoC&printsec=frontcover |title=Field and Laboratory Investigations in Agroecology |author=Gliessman, S.R. |publisher=CRC Press |pages=302 |year=2007 |isbn=9780849328466}}</ref>
To complicate things further, a material can be defined based upon the context of use. Take for example the ISO 10303-45 standard by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), which addresses the representation and exchange of material and product manufacturing information in a standardized way, specifically describing how material and other engineering properties can be described in the model/framework.<ref name="ISO10303-45">{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/78581.html |title=ISO 10303-45:2019 ''Industrial automation systems and integration — Product data representation and exchange — Part 45: Integrated generic resource: Material and other engineering properties'' |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |date=November 2019 |accessdate=20 September 2023}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Swindells |first=Norman |date=2009 |title=The Representation and Exchange of Material and Other Engineering Properties |url=http://datascience.codata.org/articles/abstract/10.2481/dsj.008-007/ |journal=Data Science Journal |language=en |volume=8 |pages=190–200 |doi=10.2481/dsj.008-007 |issn=1683-1470}}</ref> The context here is "standardized data transfer of material- and product-related data," which in turn involves [[Ontology (information science)|ontologies]] that limit the complexity of materials science discourse and help better organize materials and product data into information and knowledge. As such, the ISO 10303 set of standards must define "material," and 10303-45 complicates matters further in this regard (though it will be helpful for this guide in the end).
* analysis and assessment of fertilizers and pesticides<ref name="GliessmanField07" />
* studies of farm and field systems<ref name="GliessmanField07" />
* studies of plant and feedstock nutrition<ref name="AskeyFeedstocks16">{{cite web |url=https://www.ornl.gov/news/feedstocks-increasing-nutrition |title=Feedstocks - Increasing nutrition |author=Askey, K. |work=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science |date=07 December 2016 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* analysis and assessment of plant and tree fibers and chemicals<ref name="FSResearchUnitFiber">{{cite web |url=https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/research/units/4709.php |title=Research Unit: Fiber and Chemical Sciences Research |work=Forest Products Laboratory |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* analysis and assessment of fungi and their chemical components<ref name="USDAMyco">{{cite web |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md-barc/beltsville-agricultural-research-center/mycology-and-nematology-genetic-diversity-and-biology-laboratory/ |title=Mycology and Nematology Genetic Diversity and Biology Laboratory: Beltsville, MD |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |accessdate=30 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="USFSCulture">{{cite web |url=https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/research/centers/mycology/culture-collection.shtml |title=Center For Forest Mycology Research - Culture Collection |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |accessdate=30 June 2022}}</ref>
* tracking and analysis of plant and tree diseases<ref name="FSSRSForestHealth">{{cite web |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/research/research_analysis.php |title=Forest Inventory and Analysis |work=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* tracking and analysis of invasive plants and insects<ref name="FSSRSForestHealth" />
* risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMO) and microorganisms<ref name="OTAANew92">{{cite book |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1992/9201/9201.PDF |chapter=Chapter 8: Scientific Issues: Risk Assessment and Risk Management |title=A New Technological Era for American Agriculture |author=U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |pages=225–256 |year=August 1992 |isbn=9780160379784}}</ref>
* tracking and analysis of agricultural animal disease<ref name="NRCMeeting12">{{cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13454/meeting-critical-laboratory-needs-for-animal-agriculture-examination-of-three |title=Meeting Critical Laboratory Needs for Animal Agriculture: Examination of Three Options |author=National Academies Press |publisher=National Academy of Science |pages=144 |year=2012 |isbn=9780309261296}}</ref>


''How do agriculture and forestry laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis?''
In reviewing ISO 10303-45 in 2009, Swindells notes the following about the standard<ref name=":0" />:


The most obvious way these labs touch our lives on a daily basis is through the food and beverages we consume. Though we talk about the food and beverage industry and its laboratories separately in this guide, agriculture labs are at the forefront of humanity's push to provide greater, more efficient, healthier, and safer agricultural yields. Agriculture lab personnel work to better feed humans and animals alike, while also considering the environmental impact of research-based advances in fertilizers, pesticides, and GMOs. Without these laboratories in place, we would surely face an even more dire future of struggling to maintain crop yields in a world of increasing population and decreasing natural resources.<ref name="SinghClimate12">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtPmQIEXZVcC&pg=PT31|chapter=Chapter 1: Climate Change and Food Security |title=Improving Crop Productivity in Sustainable Agriculture |author=Singh, R.B. |editor=Tuteja, N.; Gill, S.S.; Tuteja, R. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2012 |pages=1–22 |isbn=9783527665198}}</ref>
<blockquote>The first edition of ISO 10303-45 was derived from experience of the testing of, so-called, "materials" properties, and the terminology used in the standard reflects this experience. However, the information modelling of an engineering material, such as alloyed steel or high density polyethylene, is no different from the information modelling of a "product." The "material" properties are therefore one of the characteristics of a product, just as its shape and other characteristics are. Therefore all "materials" are products, and the information model in ISO 10303-45 can be used for any property of any product.</blockquote>


These labs also intersect our lives in other ways. For example, studies of fungi have revealed constituents applicable to paper production, soil remediation, and pharmaceutical development.<ref name="USFSCulture" /> Similarly, monitoring of plant and tree diseases through laboratory work helps us stand prepared to address potential threats to our own agricultural products.<ref name="FSSRSForestHealth" /> In these cases, the work of these labs shows up in many of the products we use and agriculture we consume.
Put in other words, for the purposes of defining "material" for a broader, more standardized ontology, materials and products can be viewed as interchangeable. Mies puts this another way, stating that based on ISO 10303-45, a material can be defined as "a manufactured object with associated properties in the context of its use environment."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mies, D. |date=2002 |editor-last=Kutz |editor-first=Myer |title=Handbook of materials selection |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWg-rchM700C&pg=PA499 |chapter=Chapter 17. Managing Materials Data |publisher=J. Wiley |place=New York |page=499 |isbn=978-0-471-35924-1}}</ref> But this representation only causes more confusion as we ask "does a material have to be manufactured?" After all, we have the term "raw material," which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as "the basic material from which a product is manufactured or made; unprocessed material."<ref name="OEDRawMat">{{cite web |url=https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?scope=Entries&q=raw+material |title=raw material |work=Oxford English Dictionary |accessdate=20 September 2023}}</ref> Additionally, chemical elements are defined as "the fundamental materials of which all matter is composed."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lagowski, J.J.; Mason, B.H.; Tayler, R.J. |date=16 August 2023 |title=chemical element |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element |accessdate=20 September 2023}}</ref> Taking into account the works of Richardson and Peterson, Mies, and Swindells, as well as ISO 10303-45, the concepts of "raw materials" and "chemical elements," and modern trends towards the inclusion of biomaterials (though discussion of biomaterials will be limited here) in materials science, we can land on the following definition for the purposes of this guide:


====Client types====
:A material is discrete matter that is elementally raw (e.g., native metallic and non-metallic elements), fundamentally processed (e.g., calcium oxide), or fully manufactured (by human, automation, or both; e.g., a fastener) that has an inherent set of properties that a human or automation-driven solution (e.g., an [[artificial intelligence]] [AI] algorithm) has identified for a potential or realized use environment.
'''Private''' - Agriculture labs in the private sector typically serve as third-party or contract laboratories to other entities conducting agricultural activities while unable or unwilling to invest in their own private laboratory. Aside from analytical services, these labs often include consulting services on plant nutrition, soil sciences, and water management.


Examples include:
First, this definition more clearly defines the types of matter that can be included, recognizing that manufactured products may still be considered materials. Initially this may seem troublesome, however, in the scope of complex manufactured products such as automobiles and satellites; is anyone really referring to those types of products as "materials"? As such, the word "discrete" is included, which in manufacturing parlance refers to distinct components such as brackets and microchips that can be assembled into a greater, more complex finished product. This means that while both a bolt and an automobile are manufactured "products," the bolt, as a discrete type of matter, can be justified as a material, whereas the automobile can't. Second—answering the question of "what if a particular matter exists today but hasn't been thoroughly studied to determine its value to researchers and industrialists?"—the definition recognizes that the material needs at a minimum recognition of a potential use case. This turns out to be OK, because if no use case has been identified, the matter still can be classified as an element, compound, or substance. It also insinuates that that element, compound, or substance with no use case isn't going to be used in the manufacturing of any material or product. Third, the definition also recognizes the recent phenomena of autonomous systems discovering new materials and whether or not those autonomous systems should be credited with inventorship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ishizuki |first=Naoya |last2=Shimizu |first2=Ryota |last3=Hitosugi |first3=Taro |date=2023-12-31 |title=Autonomous experimental systems in materials science |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/27660400.2023.2197519 |journal=Science and Technology of Advanced Materials: Methods |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2197519 |doi=10.1080/27660400.2023.2197519 |issn=2766-0400}}</ref> The question of inventorship is certainly worth discussion, though it is beyond the scope of this guide. Regardless, the use of automated systems to match a set of properties of a particular matter to a real-world use case isn't likely to go away, and this definition accepts that likelihood.


* [http://www.al-labs-west.com/ A&L Western Laboratories, Inc.]
Finally, this leads us to the realization that materials, by definition, are inherently linked to the act of intentional human- or automation-driven creation, i.e., manufacturing and construction.
* [https://watersag.com/ Waters Agricultural Laboratories, Inc.]
* [https://www.waypointanalytical.com/ Waypoint Analytical]


'''Government''' - Government-run agriculture and forestry laboratories conduct specialized topical research, provide analytical services, and oversee federal, state, and local programs in the industry. From bee research to interstate milk shipping programs and compliance testing, these public or public-private labs may act as major research hubs or checkpoints of regulated testing.


Examples include:
===1.1 Materials testing labs, then and now===


* [https://www.oregon.gov/oda/AboutUs/Pages/LaboratoryServices.aspx Oregon Department of Agriculture Lab Services Program]
====1.1.1 Materials testing 2.0====
* [https://www.ars.usda.gov/midwest-area/ames/nlae/ U.S. Department of Agriculture National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment]
* [https://wyagric.state.wy.us/divisions/asl Wyoming Department of Agriculture Analytical Services Lab]


'''Academic''' - Agriculture laboratories associated with higher education institutions are often of a hybrid client type and function. The institution's laboratory may be made multi-purpose for research, teaching, and analytical testing purposes. Many higher-education agriculture labs also process samples from external third-party clients, acting in some ways like a private analytical lab would. In some cases, non-profit and private entities partner with higher education (public-private) to provide research and training opportunities beneficial to both the entities and the students. (See for example the Cornell-affiliated non-profit Hudson Valley Research Laboratory.<ref name="HVRL">{{cite web |url=https://www.farmhv.org/ |title=Farmer's Alliance for Research & Management |publisher=Cornell University |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>)
*https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/str.12434
*https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/str.12370


Examples include:


* [https://www.clemson.edu/public/regulatory/ag-srvc-lab/index.html Clemson University Agricultural Service Laboratory]
===1.2 Industries, products, and raw materials===
* [https://agsci.psu.edu/aasl Penn State Agricultural Analytical Services Laboratory]
* [https://extension.unl.edu/statewide/panhandle/high-plains-ag-lab/ University of Nebraska-Lincoln High Plains Ag Lab]


====Functions====


''What are the most common functions?'' analytical, research/design, QA/QC, and teaching
===1.3 Laboratory roles and activities in the industry===


''What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed, researched, and quality controlled?'' animal tissue, commodities, compost, feed and forage, fertilizers, fruits, fungi, insects, irrigation water, manure, pesticides, plant tissue, seeds, soil
====1.3.1 R&D roles and activities====


''What sciences are being applied in these labs?'' agroecology, agronomy, agrophysics, animal science, biological engineering, biology, biotechnology, chemistry, environmental science, food science, forestry, microbiology, mycology, nematology, soil science, water management
====1.3.2 Pre-manufacturing and manufacturing roles and activities====


''What are some examples of test types and equipment?''
====1.3.3 Post-production quality control and regulatory roles and activities====
 
'''Common test types include''':
 
Absorption, Acute contact, Acute oral, Acute toxicity, Allergy, Antifungal susceptibility, Antimicrobial, Atterberg limits, Bioaccumulation, Biodegradation, Chronic toxicity, Composition, Conductivity, Consolidation, Contamination, Cytology, Density, Developmental and reproductive toxicology, Efficacy, Endocrine disruptor screening program, Environmental fate, Environmental metabolism, Expiration dating, Fluorescence, Formulation, Genotoxicity, GMO detection, Hydraulic conductivity, Identification, Impurity, Labeling, Metallurgical analysis, Minimum bactericidal concentration, Minimum inhibitory concentration, Mobility, Moisture, Mold - fungal - mycotoxin, Mutagenicity, Nutritional, Organic carbon, Oxidation reduction potential, Oxidation stability, Pathogen, Pathogenicity, PDCAAS, Permeability, pH, Phytosanitary, Plant metabolism, Proficiency, Purity, Radioactivity, Radiochemical, Sanitation, Sensory, Shelf life, Soil microflora, Solubility, Specific gravity, Subchronic toxicity, Terrestrial toxicology, Toxicokinetic, Vigor and germination, Water activity, Wildlife toxicology
 
'''Industry-related lab equipment may include''':
 
automated weather stations, chromatographs, colorimeters, conductivity analyzers, diffractometer, dry ovens, fat analyzers, incubators, mills, moisture testers, nitrogen/oxygen analyzers, pH meters, porometers, scales, spectrometers
 
''What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the agriculture industry?''
 
The food and beverage industry is closely linked. For example, the State of Pennsylvania's Department of Agriculture includes a food safety laboratory division.<ref name="PAFoodSafety">{{cite web |url=https://www.agriculture.pa.gov/consumer_protection/FoodSafety/Laboratory/pages/default.aspx |title=Food Safety Laboratory |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> However, for the purposes of this guide, food, beverages, and ingredients are separated out as part of their own industry. Even raw materials that can be consumed alone such as cow milk or apples require some processing and handling (e.g., cleaning and packaging). In other words, the agriculture industry is arguably worried about the research, development, growth, and safety of what goes into what the food and beverage industry provides. Agriculture labs also have obvious tie-ins to environmental laboratories, as agricultural activities impact the environment and vice versa. Ties to veterinary labs may seem evident, and in fact many universities lump veterinary science programs with agriculture programs. However, animal science as a scientific discipline is arguably more closely aligned with agriculture science, as animal science takes a broader approach to the production, care, nutrition, and processing of animal-based food products.<ref name="FlandersExploring11">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WT1Ws2o3keYC&pg=PA38 |title=Exploring Animal Science |author=Flanders, F. |publisher=Cengage Learning |pages=38–39 |year=2011 |isbn=9781435439528}}</ref>
 
====Informatics in the agriculture and forestry industry====
Informatics software is being applied in agricultural fields, forests, and laboratories in a variety of ways, including for:
 
* continuous soil profile monitoring<ref name="CropMetricsAnIntro14">{{cite web |url=http://cropmetrics.com/2014/02/an-introduction-to-agro-informatics/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203234912/http://cropmetrics.com/2014/02/an-introduction-to-agro-informatics/ |title=An Introduction to Agro-Informatics |publisher=CropMetrics |date=06 February 2014 |archivedate=03 December 2018 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* collecting and analyzing real time kinematic (RTK) elevation and mapping data to improve crop yields<ref name="CropMetricsAnIntro14" />
* tracking animal disease<ref name="FAOALab14">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/empres/news_131014.html |title=A Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) for Africa |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=13 October 2014 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* optimization of tree harvest scheduling and crew assignment<ref name="JansenSpatial02">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvMqnkqMN9UC&pg=PA3 |chapter=Chapter 2: Introduction |title=Spatial Modelling in Forest Ecology and Management: A Case Study |author=Jansen, M.; Judas, M.; Saborowski, J. |publisher=Springer |pages=3–10 |year=2002 |isbn=9783540433576 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* computation of wildfire risk indices<ref name="IliadisWildfire14">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-R9HAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1073 |chapter=Chapter 53: Soft Computing Modeling of Wild Fire Risk Indices: The Risk Profile of Peloponnesus Region in Greece |title=Crisis Management: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools and Applications |author=Iliadis, L.; Betsidou, T. |publisher=IGI Global |pages=1073–1087 |year=2014 |isbn=9781466647084 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
 
 
 
 
https://ideas.repec.org/a/arp/ijwpds/2020p56-65.html
 
 
 
 
====LIMSwiki resources====
 
* [[Agriculture industry]]
* [[Forest informatics]]
 
====Further reading====
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JpFHsF0luFIC&printsec=frontcover |title=Introduction to Forestry Science |edition=3rd |author=Burton, L.D. |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2012 |pages=544 |isbn=9781111308391}}
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEU_Bvr_N5IC&printsec=frontcover |title=The Science of Agriculture: A Biological Approach |author=Herren, R.V. |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2011 |pages=672 |isbn=9781439057766}}
 
 
<div align="center"><hr width="50%"></div>
 
===Automotive, aerospace, and marine===
[[File:Delphi Automotive (6944417073).jpg|left|400px]]
{{clear}}
Laboratories in the automotive, aerospace, and maritime travel industry are focused on the design, development, and testing of components, materials, fluids, etc. that make up vehicles that operate on land, on sea, in air, and in outer space. These labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to):
 
* analysis and assessment of chemicals and petrochemicals<ref name="PhlegmTheRole09">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRzfAwbzbNMC&printsec=frontcover |title=The Role of the Chemist in Automotive Design |author=Phlegm, H.K. |publisher=CRC Press |year=2009 |pages=216 |isbn=9781420071894}}</ref>
* analysis and assessment of materials<ref name="ElmarakbiAdvanced13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wfxQAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications: Structural Integrity and Crashworthiness |editor=Elmarakbi, A. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2013 |pages=472 |isbn=9781118535264}}</ref><ref name="DaviesMaterials12">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fZsIeCavO8C&printsec=frontcover |title=Materials for Automobile Bodies |author=Davies, G. |publisher=Elsevier |year=2012 |pages=416 |isbn=9780080969800}}</ref>
* analysis and assessment of safety<ref name="ElmarakbiAdvanced13" /><ref name="DaviesMaterials12" />
* tracking and analysis of structural integrity<ref name="StaszewskiHealth04">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzSPVBZ_Yg0C&printsec=frontcover |title=Health Monitoring of Aerospace Structures: Smart Sensor Technologies and Signal Processing |editor=Staszewski, W.; Boller, C.; Tomlinson, G.R. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |pages=288 |isbn=9780470092835}}</ref>
* design and analysis of lighting<ref name="WördenweberAuto07">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yatUXs8QQAMC&printsec=frontcover |title=Automotive Lighting and Human Vision |author=Wördenweber, B.; Wallaschek, J.; Boyce, P.; Hoffman, D.D. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2007 |pages=410 |isbn=9783540366973}}</ref>
* design and analysis of chassis<ref name="ReimpellTheAuto01">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fuXf3wmahM8C&printsec=frontcover |title=The Automotive Chassis: Engineering Principles |editor=Reimpell, J.; Stoll, H.; Betzler, J. |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=2001 |pages=456 |isbn=9780080527734}}</ref>
* design and analysis of fuel cells<ref name="KochaPolymer12">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LE99dRxwtVcC&pg=PA473 |chapter=Chapter 15: Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, Automotive Applications |title=Fuel Cells: Selected Entries from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology |author=Kocha, S.S. |editor=Kreuer, K.-D. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |pages=473–518 |isbn=9781461457855}}</ref>
* failure analysis<ref name="ReddyInvestigation04">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WkXRBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Investigation of Aeronautical and Engineering Component Failures |author=Reddy, A.V. |publisher=CRC Press |year=2004 |pages=368 |isbn=9780203492093}}</ref>
 
''How do automotive, aerospace, and marine laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis?'' While much scientific effort has gone into the development of modern vehicles — a significant portion of it in some sort of laboratory — from the ergonomic shift knob and regenerative braking system to the quantum accelerometer<ref name="MarksQuantum14">{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22229694-000-quantum-positioning-system-steps-in-when-gps-fails/ |title=Quantum positioning system steps in when GPS fails |author=Marks, P. |work=New Scientist |publisher=New Scientist Ltd |date=14 May 2014 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> and solid rocket booster, the laboratory testing that goes into designing safer products and systems is the easiest for the layperson to relate to. From Volvo and Nils Bohlin's contribution of the three-point seat belt<ref name="HistoryThree10">{{cite web |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/three-point-seatbelt-inventor-nils-bohlin-born |title=Three-point seatbelt inventor Nils Bohlin born |work=History.com |publisher=A+E Networks |date=27 January 2010 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> to the continuing improvement of automotive and pedestrian impact safety standards<ref name="AtiyehNHTSA15">{{cite web |url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a15350598/nhtsa-overhauling-crash-tests-for-2019-model-year-cars/ |title=NHTSA Overhauling Crash Tests for 2019 Model Year Cars |author=Atiyeh, C. |work=Car and Driver |publisher=Hearst Communications, Inc |date=09 December 2015 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>, traditional and non-traditional laboratories alike are responsible for advances in keeping drivers, passengers, and pedestrians safer. Without these laboratories in place — and without the related efforts of pioneering automotive engineers developing and propagating tested standards in the 1910s<ref name="ThompsonIntercomp54">{{cite journal |title=Intercompany Technical Standardization in the Early American Automobile Industry |journal=The Journal of Economic History |author=Thompson, G.V. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |year=1954 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2115223}}</ref> — the safety of vehicles arguably wouldn't be anything like what it is today. Secondarily, vehicle reliability and longevity would also suffer.
 
====Client types====
 
'''Private''' - Private laboratories in this industry are usually either associated directly with a vehicle manufacturer (e.g., Ford Motor Company, Boeing Company, Gulf Craft) or act as a third-party contract laboratory for manufacturers and designers who are unable or unwilling to invest in their own private laboratory. Aside from analytical services, these labs often include consulting services on design management and analysis as well as team and project management.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://www.araiindia.com/ Automotive Research Association of India]
* [https://calspan.com/automotive/vehicle-crash-test-services Calspan Corporation]
* [https://www.intertek.com/automotive/ Intertek Group PLC]
 
'''Government''' - Government-run transportation-related laboratories conduct specialized topical research, provide analytical services, and oversee federal, state, and local programs in the industry. From aircraft fatigue research and emissions testing to transportation system modelling, these public or public-private labs may act as major research hubs or checkpoints of regulated testing.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://www.dst.defence.gov.au/content/ha-wills-structures-and-materials-test-centre H.A. Wills Structures and Materials Test Centre]
* [https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/about-national-vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-laboratory-nvfel U.S. EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory]
* [https://www.tracc.anl.gov/joomla/index.php U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory, Transportation Research And Analysis Computing Center]
 
'''Academic''' - Automotive, aerospace, and maritime transportation laboratories associated with higher education institutions act as both teaching locations for new students and fundamental and applied research locations for more advanced students. That academic research may be funded by industry sources, by a government, or by a non-profit or foundation, and some academic laboratories may act as a public-private entity when a non-profit or private entity partners with the higher education institution.
 
Examples include:
 
* [http://web.mit.edu/sloan-auto-lab/ Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Sloan Automotive Laboratory]
* [https://www.egr.msu.edu/future-engineer/energy-and-automotive-research-lab-earl Michigan State University's Energy & Automotive Research Laboratory]
* [http://www.martrans.org/ National Technical University of Athens' Laboratory for Maritime Transport]
 
====Functions====
 
''What are the most common functions?'' analytical, research/design, and QA/QC
 
''What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed, researched, and quality controlled?'' combustion, emissions, fluid dynamics, lubricants, materials and components, paints and coatings, power conversion and control, propulsion and power generation, safety, structural mechanics
 
''What sciences are being applied in these labs?'' biomechanics, chemical, electrical engineering, electronic engineering, environmental, ergonomics, materials science, mathematics, mechanical engineering, physics, safety engineering, software engineering
 
''What are some examples of test types and equipment?''
 
'''Common test types include''':
 
Accelerated stress testing, Accelerated weathering, Acceleration, Acoustical, Adhesion, Aging, Altitude, Ash, Case depth, Characterization, Chemical and materials compatibility, Cleanliness, Climatics, Combustion, Comparative Tracking Index, Compliance/Conformance, Compression, Conductivity, Contact mechanics, Corrosion, Damage tolerance, Degredation, Design review and evaluation, Dielectric withstand, Dimensional, Discoloration, Dynamics, Efficiency, Electromagnetic compatibility, Electromagnetic interference, Electrostatic discharge, Emissions, Endurance, Environmental stress-cracking resistance, Ergonomics, Etching, Failure, Fatigue, Feasibility, Flammability, Flash point, Fluid dynamics, Friction, Functional testing, Hazard analysis, Heat resistance, Hydraulic, Immersion, Impact, Inclusion, Inflatability, Ingress, Iterative, Lightning, Lubricity, Macroetch, Mass, Mechanical, Mechanical durability, Oxidation reduction potential, Passivation, Performance, Permeability, pH, Photometric, Plating and coating evaluations, Proficiency, Qualification, Quality control, Reliability, Resistance - capacitance - inductance, Safety, Shear, Shock, Stress corrosion cracking, Surface topography, Tensile, Thermal, Torque, Ultraviolet, Usability, Velocity and flow, Vibration, Visibility, Voltage, Weathering
 
'''Industry-related lab equipment may include''':
 
battery load tester, carbon sulfur analyzer, circuit tester, colorimeter, compression tester, demonstration and simulation equipment, digital multimeter, gas analyzer, hardness tester, heat treatment furnace, salt spray chamber, temperature and humidity chamber, tension tester, thermal shock chamber
 
''What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the automotive, aerospace, and maritime travel industry?'' A September 2010 Brookings report stated that "innovation activity undertaken in the private sector of the auto industry extends far beyond the automaker itself, as nearly three-fourths of the value of a vehicle is added by companies other than the automaker."<ref name="KlierTheFed10">{{cite web |url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/0927_great_lakes_auto.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Federal Role in Supporting Auto Sector Innovation |author=Klier, T.; Sands, C. |work=Metropolitan Policy Program |publisher=Brookings Institution |date=September 2010 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> Though the report doesn't directly mention who makes up those companies, presumably industry-focused R&D, QA, and compliance testing laboratories make up at least a small portion of them. As for intersections with other industries, the petrochemical, environmental, and energy industries are closely linked, providing insight and advances in combustion, emissions control, and alternative fuel sources to automobile, airplane, boat, and space vehicle designers and manufacturers.
 
====Informatics in the automotive, aerospace, and marine industry====
<blockquote>As the automobile is being transformed by technologies, applications and services grounded in advances in everything from sensors to artificial intelligence to big data analysis; the ecosystem is witnessing a steady influx of new players and the continued evolution of the roles played by key stakeholders and the balance of power among them. Of particular interest is the evolving relationship between automakers and software providers. - Mike Woodward, U.K. Automotive Leader, Deloitte<ref name="DeloitteBig15">{{cite web |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/manufacturing/deloitte-uk-automotive-analytics.pdf |format=PDF |title=Big data and analytics in the automotive industry: Automotive analytics thought piece |publisher=Deloitte LLP |date=2015 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref></blockquote>
 
Woodward's 2015 statement wasn't that unusual in itself; at the time multiple industries were making similar remarks. What is more interesting is his mention of the role software providers specifically are playing in industries like the automotive, aerospace, and marine industry. From data recovery and distribution to data sharing, whether it's in the R&D lab or on the factory floor, informatics software is increasingly playing a role in making safer products, improving operational efficiency, and better targeting sales and marketing. Laboratory information management systems (LIMS) are being tailored to the industry to assist with statistical process control (SPC) and capability studies using data directly from the factory floor.<ref name="ALISAuto">{{cite web |url=http://www.alis.nl/en/alis-lims-for-automotive-industry/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915011017/http://www.alis.nl/en/alis-lims-for-automotive-industry/ |title=SPC & Capability studies with a single mouse click |publisher=Asystance B.V |archivedate=15 September 2017 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> LIMS is also helping in aerospace development, particularly with managing specifications and materials analysis in the lab.<ref name="WavefrontAero">{{cite web |url=https://www.wavefrontsoftware.com/industries/aerospace.asp |title=Aerospace & Defense |publisher=Wavefront Software, Inc |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> And with the greater focus on informatics in the industry, new journals like the International Journal of Aerospace System Science and Engineering<ref name="IJASSE">{{cite web |url=https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijasse |title=International Journal of Aerospace System Science and Engineering |publisher=Inderscience Enterprises Ltd |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> are appearing to further informatics applications in automotive, aerospace, and marine environments.
 
====LIMSwiki resources====
 
* None
 
====Further reading====
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83PABAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Innovative Design, Analysis and Development Practices in Aerospace and Automotive Engineering |editor=Bajpai, R.P.; Chandrasekhar, U.; Arankalle, A.R. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2014 |pages=320 |isbn=9788132218715}}
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSFrAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Structural Materials and Processes in Transportation |editor=Lehmhus, D.; Busse, M.; Herrmann, A.; Kayvantash, K. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2013 |pages=500 |isbn=9783527649860}}
 
 
<div align="center"><hr width="50%"></div>
 
===Calibration and standards===
[[File:Calibrate scale.JPG|left|200px]]
{{clear}}
Laboratories in the calibration and standards industry are focused on testing the accuracy of measurement devices and reference standards, correcting inaccuracies in measurement devices, and developing and using standards/reference equipment and devices for calibration testing. Broadly speaking, these laboratories will appear as stand-alone, accredited laboratories performing calibrations for customers on request; as in-house calibration laboratories found in production facilities testing their equipment against working standards tested by the third-party accredited lab; or in a university setting, which may or may not offer accredited third-party calibration services.<ref name="CzichosSpringerHand11">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpTE1Z5UfsQC&pg=PA47 |chapter=Chapter 3: Quality in Measurement and Testing |title=Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing |editor=Czichos, H.; Saito, T.; Smith, L.E. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |pages=45–49 |year=2011 |isbn=9783642166419}}</ref> These labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to):
 
* calibration of working or reference standards used in other calibration activities<ref name="BucherTheQualChapt12_07">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7z9QaYFhrUC&pg=PA3 |chapter=Chapter 12: Calibration Environment |title=The Quality Calibration Handbook: Developing and Managing a Calibration Program |author=Bucher, J.L. |publisher=ASQ Quality Press |year=2007 |pages=113–116 |isbn=9780873897044}}</ref>
* calibration of mechanical, electronic, and other instruments and components, in lab or onsite<ref name="CzichosSpringerHand11" /><ref name="BucherTheQualChapt12_07" />
* maintenance and repair of instruments
* documentation of tests for regulatory or audit purposes
* enact measurement assurance programs<ref name="NISTPolicies">{{cite web |url=https://www.nist.gov/calibrations/policies |title=Policies |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |date=17 February 2022 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
 
''How do calibration and standards laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis?'' Let's turn to an introductory section of Jay L. Bucher's ''The Quality Calibration Handbook'' to help visualize an answer to this question<ref name="BucherTheQual07">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7z9QaYFhrUC&pg=PA3 |chapter=Chapter 1: Preventing the Next Great Train Wreck |title=The Quality Calibration Handbook: Developing and Managing a Calibration Program |author=Bucher, J.L. |publisher=ASQ Quality Press |year=2007 |pages=3–8 |isbn=9780873897044}}</ref>:
 
<blockquote>Without calibration, or by using incorrect calibrations, all of us pay more at the gas station, for food weighed incorrectly at the checkout counter, and for speeding tickets. Incorrect amounts of ingredients in your prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs can cost more, or even cause illness or death. Because of poor or incorrect calibration, killers and rapists are either not convicted or are released on bad evidence. Crime labs cannot identify the remains of victims or wrongly identify victims in the case of mass graves. Airliners fly into mountaintops and off the ends of runways because they don't know their altitude and/or speed. Babies are not correctly weighed at birth. The amount of drugs confiscated in a raid determines whether the offense is a misdemeanor or a felony; which weight is correct? ... Satellites and everything they affect would be a thing of the past, as would be the manufacturing and production of almost everything made in the world today.</blockquote>
 
====Client types====
 
'''Private''' - As previously mentioned, private industry labs are largely either in a production facility or act as a third-party contract laboratory for manufacturers who are unable or unwilling to invest in their own private calibration laboratory. Aside from making the calibration (comparison), these labs may also provide maintenance and repair services as well as compliance documentation.
 
Examples include:
 
* [http://classiclabindia.com/ Classic Calibration & Testing Laboratories]
* [https://www.ametek-cts.com/about-us/brands/em-test EM TEST]
* [https://www.esscolab.com/ Essco Calibration Laboratory]
 
'''Government''' - These government-affiliated labs are often at or near the top of the chain of calibration labs, working with others to link their equipment to national or even international measurement standards. They can be found not only at the federal level but also at the state/territory level and may even exist as public-private partnership.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://www.nist.gov/calibrations National Institute of Standards and Technology]
* [https://www.dgs.pa.gov/Pennsylvania-Standards-Laboratory/Pages/default.aspx Pennsylvania Standards Laboratory]
* [https://www.sandia.gov/psl/ Sandia National Laboratories' Primary Standards Laboratory]
 
'''Academic''' - Like agriculture labs, calibration and standards laboratories associated with higher education institutions are often of a hybrid client type and function. They may multi-purpose a laboratory for research, teaching, and professional calibration services, processing equipment and instruments from external third-party clients, acting in some ways like a private analytical lab would. Some university labs may have strong ties (through contracts or received funding) with commercial and government entities, leveraging university research and knowledge to those external parties to further fund university laboratory teaching efforts.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://lasp.colorado.edu/home/engineering/facilities/labs/ University of Colorado - Boulder's Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics]
* [https://hoganlab.net/particle-calibration-laboratory/ University of Minnesota's Particle Calibration Laboratory]
* [https://uwrl.usu.edu/hydraulics/hydraulic-testing Utah State's Utah Water Research Laboratory, Hydraulics Laboratory]
 
====Functions====
 
''What are the most common functions?'' calibration, research/design, QA/QC, teaching
 
''What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being calibrated, researched, and quality controlled?'' electronics, measurement tools, mechanical devices, primary standards; chronometric, dimensional, hardness, photometric, sensitivity, thermal, volumetric
 
''What sciences are being applied in these labs?'' applied statistics, engineering, metrology, physics
 
''What are some examples of test types and equipment?''
 
'''Common test types include''':
 
Absorption, Acceleration, Acoustical, Compression, Dimensional, Grain and particle size, Humidity, Mass, Optical, Oxidation reduction potential, pH, Photometric, Power quality, Pressure, Proficiency, Reflectance, Resistance - capacitance - inductance, Temperature, Tensile, Torque, Validation, Velocity and flow
 
'''Industry-related lab equipment may include''':
 
benchtop precision meters, calibration mass sets, dry block probe calibrators, heated calibration bath, infrared calibrator, milliamp loop calibrator, multifunction calibrator, pressure calibrator, stage micrometer, standard resistors, standard capacitors, standard inductors, surface probe tester, thermocouple calibrator, torque reference transducer
 
''What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the calibration industry?'' Calibration laboratories, whether located in a manufacturing facility or as a stand-alone third-party facility, have special placement and environmental requirements that must be met to ensure optimal operations. This includes maintaining a strict range of relative humidity; maintaining temperature stability and uniformity; and managing air flow, vibration, and dust issues properly.<ref name="BucherTheQualChapt12_07" /> Many calibration labs found in higher education facilities seem to be multipurpose, capable of handling not only teaching and research functions but also able to provide independent calibration services to external customers, public and private. In the U.S. at least, the government is engaged in several public-private ventures involving calibration and standards laboratories.
 
====Informatics in the calibration industry====
Like other laboratories, calibration labs are using informatics to improve their operations. Standards such as ISO/IEC 17025 (technical competence and management system requirements) and ANSI/NCSL Z540.3 (metrology and calibration accreditation requirements) are vital to the end-user having their equipment calibrated, as they better guarantee calculations of Probability of False Acceptance and issuance of calibration certificates, which today are largely performed via informatics software. Those same systems can keep track of client ID, certificate number, equipment ID, calibration due date, values assessed, and test results for not only the certificate issuance but also further data-driven insights about calibration effectiveness and frequency.<ref name="NRCCRecommended03">{{cite web |url=https://nrc.canada.ca/en/certifications-evaluations-standards/calibration-laboratory-assessment-service/recommended-practices-calibration-laboratories |title=Recommended practices for calibration laboratories |work=National Research Council Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=27 March 2019 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="KeysightZ540.3_14">{{cite web |url=https://www.keysight.com/us/en/assets/7018-03055/brochures/5990-8567.pdf |format=PDF |title=Z540.3 Calibration Service Explained |publisher=Keysight Technologies |date=08 August 2019 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="KeysightCertOfCalib15">{{cite web |url=https://www.keysight.com/us/en/assets/7018-03392/flyers/5991-0112.pdf |format=PDF |title=Keysight Technologies Certificate of Calibration Enhanced |publisher=Keysight Technologies |date=02 August 2014 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
 
====LIMSwiki resources====
 
* [[Reference laboratory]]
 
====Further reading====
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2XpqR-3MK4C&printsec=frontcover |title=The Metrology Handbook |author=Bucher, J.L. |publisher=ASQ Quality Press |edition=2nd |year=2012 |pages=560 |isbn=9780873898386}}
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpTE1Z5UfsQC&printsec=frontcover |title=Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing |editor=Czichos, H.; Saito, T.; Smith, L.E. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2011 |pages=1500 |isbn=9783642166419}}
 
 
<div align="center"><hr width="50%"></div>
 
===Chemical===
[[File:Chemistry lab of HTG.jpg|left|400px]]
{{clear}}
Broadly speaking, laboratories in the chemical industry are focused on testing the properties and constituents of chemicals, bodily fluids, and other organic/inorganic materials. More narrowly, while such testing may be the sole function of a chemical laboratory (perhaps as a contract laboratory), it may also function as part of a manufacturer's greater research and development effort, a clinical facility's quality control program, a government's public safety program, or an agriculture company's environmental research division. In all these cases the work falls under the general concepts of either pure chemistry (research simply for the sake of knowledge) or applied chemistry (activities towards a short term goal, as part of a company or institution).<ref name="DummiesWhatChemists">{{cite web |url=https://www.dummies.com/article/business-careers-money/careers/science-careers/what-chemists-do-and-where-they-work-194427/ |title=What Chemists Do and Where They Work |work=Dummies.com |publisher=Wiley |date=26 March 2016 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> These labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to):
 
* analysis and assessment of what and how much is in a substance<ref name="DummiesWhatChemists" />
* analysis and assessment of the physical properties of a substance<ref name="DummiesWhatChemists" />
* creation and synthesis of new substances<ref name="DummiesWhatChemists" />
* development of chemical models, theories, and test methods<ref name="DummiesWhatChemists" /><ref name="FHAChemLab">{{cite web |url=https://highways.dot.gov/research/laboratories/chemistry-laboratory/chemistry-laboratory-overview |title=Chemistry Laboratory |work=Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology |publisher=Federal Highway Administration |date=18 May 2022 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* quality testing and assurance<ref name="FHAChemLab" />
 
''How do chemical laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis?'' To answer this question, it's best to first point out that matter = chemicals. Matter has mass and occupies space, and it is made of chemicals. Or as the The University of Waikato in New Zealand puts it, matter is constructed from atoms, and "if atoms are LEGO blocks, chemicals are the structures you can build with them."<ref name="WaikatoChemicals12">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/363-chemicals-everywhere |title=Chemicals everywhere |work=Science Learning Hub |publisher=University of Waikato |date=02 December 2016 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> Therefore, chemistry is about the study of matter, it's properties, and how it changes by external forces.<ref name="ACSChemistry">{{cite web |url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/everywhere.html |title=Chemistry if Everywhere |publisher=American Chemical Society |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> Laboratories performing chemistry activities are, by extension, pivotal to most every aspect of our life. From pharmaceuticals to food, paint to drinking water, a chemistry lab is behind the scenes, with people dedicated to improving our lives.
 
====Client types====
 
'''Private''' - The chemical labs of private companies can be found in many professional spaces and contexts. They may appear as part of manufacturing, R&D, and contract lab contexts, located within a facility or as a stand-alone facility. Aside from any of the above mentioned activities, a private lab may also provide consulting services.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://www.kojundo.co.jp/en_index.html Kojundo Chemical Laboratory Co. Ltd.]
* [https://www.ncl-india.org/ National Chemical Laboratory]
* [https://www.trane.com/commercial/north-america/us/en/services/operate-maintain-repair/hvac-system-management/predictive-services/chemical-laboratory.html Trane Chemical Laboratory]
 
'''Government''' - Government-based chemical labs are often part of a regulatory process or provide research that guides regulation development. They may provide mandated laboratory testing of materials for toxic chemicals or material research studies for the improvement of highway construction materials, for example.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://dtsc.ca.gov/chemistry/ California's Environmental Chemistry Laboratory]
* [https://connect.ncdot.gov/resources/Materials/Pages/ChemicalLaboratory.aspx North Carolina Department of Transportation Chemical Laboratory]
* [https://highways.dot.gov/research/laboratories/chemistry-laboratory/chemistry-laboratory-overview U.S. Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration Chemistry Laboratory]
 
'''Academic''' - A majority of chemical labs in the academic environment are traditional, in that they act as both teaching spaces and a place for faculty research.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://chemistry.dartmouth.edu/undergraduate/general-chemistry-lab Dartmouth General Chemistry Lab]
* [https://www.osu.edu/map/building.php?building=053 Ohio State University's McPherson Chemical Laboratory]
* [https://chemistry.princeton.edu/research-facilities/frick-chemistry-laboratory Princeton University's Frick Chemistry Laboratory]
 
====Functions====
 
''What are the most common functions?'' analytical, research/design, QA/QC, and teaching
 
''What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed, researched, and quality controlled?'' biological materials, ceramics, dyes and pigments, fragrances, glass, inorganics, lubricants, manufactured materials, metals, petrochemicals, polymers, raw chemicals
 
''What sciences are being applied in these labs?'' analytical chemistry, biochemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry
 
''What are some examples of test types and equipment?''
 
'''Common test types include''':
 
Absorption, Acid and base number, Acute contact, Acute oral, Acute toxicity, Adhesion, Amino acid analysis, Anion, Antimicrobial, Ash, Biomolecular, Biosafety, Boiling - freezing - melting point, Carcinogenicity, Characterization, Chemical and materials compatibility, Chronic toxicity, Colorimetric, Combustion, Compliance/Conformance, Conductivity, Composition, Congealing point, Contamination, Corrosion, Decomposition, Density, Developmental and reproductive toxicology, Efficacy, Endocrine disruptor screening program, Environmental fate, Environmental metabolism, Flammability, Flash point, Fluid dynamics, Formulation, Geochemistry, Hazard analysis, Impact, Iodine value, Metallurgical analysis, Minimum bactericidal concentration, Minimum inhibitory concentration, Moisture, Neurotoxicity, Oxidation reduction potential, Oxidation stability, pH, Polarimetry, Process safety, Proficiency, Quality control, Sensitization, Shelf life, Solubility, Stability, Subchronic toxicity, Thermal, Toxicokinetic, Vapor pressure, Virucidal efficacy, Viscosity
 
'''Industry-related lab equipment may include''':
 
balance, Bunsen burner, burette, colorimeter, centrifuge, chromatographic, crucible, desiccator, dropper, electrophoresis equipment, Erlenmeyer flask, Florence flask, fume hood, funnel, graduated cylinder, hot plate, moisture analyzer, mortar and pestle, multi-well plate, oven, pH meter, pipestem triangle, reagent dispenser, ring stand, rotary evaporator, spectrometer, spectrophotometer, stirring rod, thermometer, vibratory disc mill, viscometer
 
''What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the chemical industry?'' It's important to note that by itself, chemistry as a branch of science — and as a science that deals with the study of matter itself — is a central science, one that bridges multiple other sciences.<ref name="BrownChemistry13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zSziBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Chemistry: The Central Science |author=Brown, T.L.; LeMay Jr., H.E.; Bursten, B.E. et al. |publisher=Pearson Australia |year=2013 |pages=1359 |isbn=9781442559462}}</ref> As such, we see significant crossover into the many of the other industries listed in this guide; clinical chemistry ties to the world of clinical analysis (clinical and veterinarian), medicinal chemistry to the pharmaceutical industry, and chemurgy to the agriculture industry.
 
====Informatics in the chemical industry====
The rise in high-throughput screening and combinatorial chemistry, as well as increases in computing power and data storage sizes, have prompted greater interest in the field of chemical informatics (also known as chemoinformatics) in the twenty-first century.<ref name="LeachIntroChem07">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z7Q87HgBdwC&printsec=frontcover |title=An Introduction to Chemoinformatics |author=Leach, A.R.; Gillet, V.J. |publisher=Springer |version=Revised |year=2007 |pages=256 |isbn=9781402062902 |accessdate=18 August 2017}}</ref> In turn, informatics has been applied in numerous ways to improve the lab activities of the chemist, including the:
 
* storage, retrieval, and mining of both structured and unstructured information relating to chemical structures, molecular models, and other chemical data;<ref name="GasteigerRepresent06">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&printsec=frontcover |title=Chemoinformatics: A Textbook |chapter=Chapter 2: Representation of Chemical Compounds |editor=Gasteiger, J.; Engel, T. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2006 |pages=15–157 |isbn=9783527606504}}</ref>
* visualization of chemical structures two or three dimensions for studying physical interactions, modeling, and docking studies;<ref name="GasteigerRepresent06" />
* generation and computational screening of virtual libraries of molecules and compounds to explore chemical space and hypothesize novel compounds with desired properties;<ref name="KutchukianFOG09">{{cite journal |title=FOG: Fragment Optimized Growth Algorithm for the de Novo Generation of Molecules Occupying Druglike Chemical Space |journal=Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling |author=Kutchukian, P.S.; Lou, D.; Shakhnovich, E.I. |year=2009 |volume=49 |issue=7 | pages=1630–1642 |doi=10.1021/ci9000458 |pmid=19527020}}</ref><ref name="SchneiderDeNovo13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jf1QAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA311 |chapter=Chapter 13: Construction of Drug-Like Compounds by Markov Chains |title=De novo Molecular Design |author=Kutchukian, P.S.; Virtanen, S.I.; Lounkine, E. et al. |editor=Schneider, G. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2013 |isbn=9783527677009}}</ref> and
* calculation of quantitative structure-activity relationship and quantitative structure property relationship values, used to predict the activity of compounds from their structures.<ref name="LeachIntroChem07" />
 
====LIMSwiki resources====
 
* [[Chemical industry]]
* [[Chemical informatics]]
* [[Clinical chemistry]]
* [[Molecular informatics]]
 
====Further reading====
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X3KX6p8hnlIC&printsec=frontcover |title=Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry |author=Beran, J.A. |publisher=Wiley |year=2010 |pages=464 |isbn=9780470647899}}
 
 
<div align="center"><hr width="50%"></div>
 
===Clinical, public and private===
[[File:Pathology Lab.png|left|400px]]
{{clear}}
To talk of clinical laboratories (serving the patient) and public health laboratories (serving the population) requires a broad look at those labs that serve in the direct analysis, treatment, and prevention of illness. From large third-party reference laboratories like Quest Diagnostics that handle laboratory analysis of patient samples for doctors to the tiny physician office laboratory performing CLIA-waived tests, from the hospital lab to a state's public health lab, from the mobile diabetes testing unit to the national disease prevention lab, it's difficult not to bump into a clinical or public health lab of some sort. These labs are found in the private, government, and academic sectors and provide many different services, including (but not limited to):
 
''Clinical''
* diagnostic analysis of patient samples<ref name="DouglasTypes14">{{cite web |url=https://www.limsforum.com/lessons/02-types-of-clinical-labs/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526212033/https://www.limsforum.com/lessons/02-types-of-clinical-labs/ |title=02. Types of Clinical Labs |work=Introduction to Clinical Laboratory Informatics – LII 006 |author=Douglas, S. |publisher=Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc |date=05 July 2014 |archivedate=26 May 2017 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* identification of infectious agents<ref name="DouglasTypes14" />
* assurance of the quality of blood for transfusions<ref name="DouglasTypes14" />
* analysis, management, and storage of reproductive tissues and fluids<ref name="DouglasTypes14" />
* provision of basic point-of-care testing<ref name="DouglasTypes14" />
* screening or testing of employees for drugs of abuse<ref name="DouglasTypes14" />
 
''Public health''
* prevention, control, and surveillance of diseases<ref name="MMWR2">{{cite journal |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5114a1.htm |title=Core Functions and Capabilities of State Public Health Laboratories |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |author=Witt-Kushner, J.; Astles, J.R.; Ridderhof, J.C. et al. |volume=51 |issue=RR14 |pages=1–8 |date=20 September 2002 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* collection, monitoring, and analysis of laboratory data submitted to national databases<ref name="MMWR2" />
* analysis and specialized testing of patient samples<ref name="MMWR2" />
* detection and analysis of toxic contaminants in environmental and food samples<ref name="MMWR2" />
* development and promotion of laboratory improvement programs as well as state and federal policy<ref name="MMWR2" />
 
''How do clinical and public health laboratories intersect the average person's life on a daily basis?'' As the debate about whether healthcare access should be universal<ref name="EvansUniversal13">{{cite journal |title=Universal health coverage and universal access |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |author=Evans, D.B.; Hsu, J.; Boerma, T. |volume=91 |pages=546–546A |year=2013 |doi=10.2471/BLT.13.125450}}</ref> or is a human right<ref name="PBSIsHealth13">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/classroom/2013/09/debating-health-care-right-america/ |title=Is Healthcare A Right? |work=PBS Newshour Extra: Student Voices |publisher=NewsHour Productions LLC |date=30 September 2013 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> wages on, many people still receive medical care but some do not. While it's bad for the "have nots," can you imagine a different world, one where it's not a fight for the have nots but a fight for most everyone to survive? Try, if you will, to imagine a universe where laboratory medicine never existed. Without laboratorians diagnosing and researching, today's healthy population would be significantly smaller. Clinical and public laboratories have brought us advances in antibiotics, which without many more people would die from surgical site infections post-surgery.<ref name="DallWHO16">{{cite web |url=https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2016/11/who-guidance-says-no-routine-post-surgery-antibiotics |title=WHO guidance says no routine post-surgery antibiotics |author=Dall, C. |work=CIDRAP |publisher=Regents of the University of Minnesota |date=03 November 2016 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> These laboratories have helped bring medical diagnostics to more people more conveniently and efficiently, and they are at the forefront of most people's health care.<ref name="ShirtsClinical15">{{cite journal |title=Clinical laboratory analytics: Challenges and promise for an emerging discipline |journal=Journal of Pathology Informatics |author=Shirts, B.H.; Jackson, B.R.; Baird, G.S. et al. |volume=6 |pages=9 |year=2015 |doi=10.4103/2153-3539.151919 |pmid=25774320 |pmc=PMC4355825}}</ref>
 
====Client types====
 
'''Private''' - Private clinical (or sometimes referred to as reference) labs usually appear in either stand-alone facilities that outpatients go to or in a medical facility such as a physicians group, hospital, or some other form of care facility. Occasionally, you may find private clinical labs in manufacturing facilities to handle mandated drug testing or even in a mobile environment.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://accureference.com/ Accu Reference Medical Labs]
* [https://www.crlcorp.com/ Clinical Reference Laboratory, Inc.]
* [https://www.questdiagnostics.com/ Quest Diagnostics]
 
'''Government''' - You'll find public health labs almost exclusively on the government side, managing disease outbreaks, monitoring public health, and acting as a third-party analysis option for clinical labs struggling to identify or characterize a sample.
 
Examples include:
 
* [https://www.cdc.gov/labstandards/nsqap.html CDC Newborn Screening and Molecular Biology Branch]
* [https://health.mo.gov/lab/ Missouri State Public Health Laboratory]
* [https://www.vidrl.org.au/ Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Australia]
 
'''Academic''' - The laboratories found in the academic sphere are often multi-purpose, serving as teaching facilities for students while at the same time providing vital in-house testing to the academic facility's affiliated medical center. However, some may be stand-alone teaching labs designed to provide hands-on education in a lab outside a medical facility.
 
Examples include:
 
* [http://wwwold.ctust.edu.tw/english2006/05department/a101.aspx?DepID=1 Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology]
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3767850/ Emory University Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine]
* [https://hr.virginia.edu/careers-uva/uva-temps/job-openings/allied-health-uva University of Virginia Health System]
 
====Functions====
 
''What are the most common functions?'' analytical, research/design, QA/QC, and teaching
 
''What materials, technologies, and/or aspects are being analyzed, researched, and quality controlled?'' biological specimens, cadavers
 
''What sciences are being applied in these labs?'' clinical chemistry, clinical microbiology, cytopathology, genetics, hematology, histopathology, immunohematology, immunology, parasitology, pathophysiology, reproductive biology, surgical pathology, toxicology, virology
 
''What are some examples of test types and equipment?''
 
'''Common test types include''':
 
Absorption, Alcohol level, Allergy, Amino acid analysis, Antimicrobial, Antigen, Bioaccumulation, Blood culture, Blood gases, Biocompatibility, Biomolecular, Biophysical profile, Blood typing, Calorimetry, Clinical diagnostic, Chronic toxicity, Colorimetric, Complete blood count, Compliance/Conformance, Composition, Cytopathology, Detection, Dietary exposure, Efficiency, Electrolyte and mineral panel, Electrophoresis, Endurance, Genetic, Genotype, Hematotoxicity, Hematocrit, Hemoglobin, Identification, Immunoassay, Immunofluorescence, Immunohistochemistry, Kidney function, Infectious disease, Lipid profile, Liver function, Medical toxicology, Metabolic, Mold - fungal - mycotoxin, Neurotoxicity, Nutritional, Osmolality, Osmolarity, Pathogen, pH, Proficiency, Radiochemical, Red blood cell count, Refractive index, Sensitization, Solubility, Specific gravity, Sports performance, Stress, Subchronic toxicity, Temperature, Thermal, Thyroid function, Urine culture, Validation, Verification
 
'''Industry-related lab equipment may include''':
 
autoclave, balance, biohazard container, biosafety cabinet, centrifuge, chromatographic, clinical chemistry analyzer, colorimeter, desiccator, dissolved oxygen meter, dry bath, fume hood, homogenizer, hotplate, incubator, magnetic stirrer, microcentrifuge tube, microplate reader, microscope, multi-well plate, orbital shaker, PCR machine, personal protective equipment, pH meter, Petri dish, pipettor, powered air purifying respirators, refractometer, spectrophotometer, syringes, test tube and rack, thermometer, urinalysis device, water bath
 
''What else, if anything, is unique about the labs in the clinical and public health industry?'' At least in the United States, clinical labs are some of the most prevalent labs in the country; as of June 2022 there was approximately one CLIA-regulated clinical laboratory for every 1,049 people.<ref name="CMS17LabTypes">{{cite web |url=https://www.cms.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Legislation/CLIA/downloads/factype.pdf |format=PDF |title=Laboratories by type of facility |author=Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Division of Laboratory Services |date=June 2022 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="USCBPopClock">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/ |title=U.S. and World Population Clock |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce |accessdate=28 June 2022 |quote=Used population value from June 1, 2022}}</ref> While many of the diagnostic techniques and laboratory instruments specific to clinical diagnostic laboratories can also be found in the clinical research setting, clinical research labs tend to be a somewhat different beast. As such, we cover those labs separately, in the next section.
 
====Informatics in the clinical industry====
From nursing to clinical care, from dentistry to occupational therapy, health (or clinical) informatics is helping clinicians manage data and knowledge. In turn, clinicians collaborate with other health care and information technology professionals to develop health informatics tools which promote patient care that is safe, efficient, effective, timely, patient-centered, and equitable. Clinical informaticians use their knowledge of patient care combined with their understanding of informatics concepts, methods, and health informatics tools to<ref name="AMIACore">{{cite journal |title=Core content for the subspecialty of clinical informatics |journal=Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association |author=Gardner, R.M.; Overhage J.M.; Steen, E.B. et al. |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=153–7 |year=2009 |doi=10.1197/jamia.M3045 |pmid=19074296 |pmc=2649328}}</ref>:
 
* assess information and knowledge needs of health care professionals and patients;
* characterize, evaluate, and refine clinical processes;
* develop, implement, and refine clinical decision support systems; and
* lead or participate in the procurement, customization, development, implementation, management, evaluation, and continuous improvement of clinical information systems.
 
====LIMSwiki resources====
 
'''Clinical'''
 
* [[Anatomical pathology]]
* [[Clinical chemistry]]
* [[Clinical laboratory]]
* [[Clinical pathology]]
* [[Cytopathology]]
* [[Health informatics]]
* [[Hematology]]
* [[Histopathology]]
* [[Imaging informatics]]
* [[Immunoinformatics]]
* [[Physician office laboratory]]
 
'''Public health'''
 
* [[E-epidemiology]]
* [[Infectious disease informatics]]
* [[Public health informatics]]
* [[Public health laboratory]]
 
====Further reading====
 
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B5rtaZt9Y9cC&printsec=frontcover |title=Essentials of Clinical Laboratory Science |author=Ridley, J. |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2010 |pages=481 |isbn=9781435448148}}
 
 
<div align="center">-----Go to [[LII:The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!/Labs by industry: Part 2|the next chapter]] of this guide-----</div>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Citation information for this chapter==
'''Chapter''': 3. Labs by industry: Part 1
'''Title''': ''The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!''
'''Edition''': Second edition
'''Author for citation''': Shawn E. Douglas
'''License for content''': [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International]
'''Publication date''': July 2022
<!--Place all category tags here-->

Latest revision as of 23:51, 20 September 2023

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1. Introduction to materials and materials testing laboratories

What is a material? This question is surprisingly more complex for the layperson than may be expected. The definition of "material" has varied significantly over the years, dependent on the course of study, laboratory, author, etc. A 1974 definition by Richardson and Peterson that has seen some use in academic study defines a material as "any nonliving matter of academic, engineering, or commercial importance."[1] But recently biomaterials like biopolymers (as replacements for plastics)[2] and even natural[3] and engineered biological tissues[4] may be referenced as "materials." (And to Richardson and Peterson's credit, they do add in the preface of their 1974 work that "[a]lthough the volumes are directed toward the physical sciences, they can also be of value for the biological scientist with materials problems."[5] A modern example would be biodegradable materials research for tissue and medical implant engineering.[6]) Yet today more questions arise. what of matter that doesn't have "academic, engineering, or commercial importance"; can it now be called a "material" in 2023? What if a particular matter exists today but hasn't been thoroughly studied to determine its value to researchers and industrialists? Indeed, the definition of "material" today is no easy task. This isn't made easier when even modern textbooks introduce the topic of materials science without aptly defining what a material actually is[7], let alone what materials science is.[8] Perhaps the writers of said textbooks assume that the definitions of "material" and "materials science" have a "well duh" response.

To complicate things further, a material can be defined based upon the context of use. Take for example the ISO 10303-45 standard by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which addresses the representation and exchange of material and product manufacturing information in a standardized way, specifically describing how material and other engineering properties can be described in the model/framework.[9][10] The context here is "standardized data transfer of material- and product-related data," which in turn involves ontologies that limit the complexity of materials science discourse and help better organize materials and product data into information and knowledge. As such, the ISO 10303 set of standards must define "material," and 10303-45 complicates matters further in this regard (though it will be helpful for this guide in the end).

In reviewing ISO 10303-45 in 2009, Swindells notes the following about the standard[10]:

The first edition of ISO 10303-45 was derived from experience of the testing of, so-called, "materials" properties, and the terminology used in the standard reflects this experience. However, the information modelling of an engineering material, such as alloyed steel or high density polyethylene, is no different from the information modelling of a "product." The "material" properties are therefore one of the characteristics of a product, just as its shape and other characteristics are. Therefore all "materials" are products, and the information model in ISO 10303-45 can be used for any property of any product.

Put in other words, for the purposes of defining "material" for a broader, more standardized ontology, materials and products can be viewed as interchangeable. Mies puts this another way, stating that based on ISO 10303-45, a material can be defined as "a manufactured object with associated properties in the context of its use environment."[11] But this representation only causes more confusion as we ask "does a material have to be manufactured?" After all, we have the term "raw material," which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as "the basic material from which a product is manufactured or made; unprocessed material."[12] Additionally, chemical elements are defined as "the fundamental materials of which all matter is composed."[13] Taking into account the works of Richardson and Peterson, Mies, and Swindells, as well as ISO 10303-45, the concepts of "raw materials" and "chemical elements," and modern trends towards the inclusion of biomaterials (though discussion of biomaterials will be limited here) in materials science, we can land on the following definition for the purposes of this guide:

A material is discrete matter that is elementally raw (e.g., native metallic and non-metallic elements), fundamentally processed (e.g., calcium oxide), or fully manufactured (by human, automation, or both; e.g., a fastener) that has an inherent set of properties that a human or automation-driven solution (e.g., an artificial intelligence [AI] algorithm) has identified for a potential or realized use environment.

First, this definition more clearly defines the types of matter that can be included, recognizing that manufactured products may still be considered materials. Initially this may seem troublesome, however, in the scope of complex manufactured products such as automobiles and satellites; is anyone really referring to those types of products as "materials"? As such, the word "discrete" is included, which in manufacturing parlance refers to distinct components such as brackets and microchips that can be assembled into a greater, more complex finished product. This means that while both a bolt and an automobile are manufactured "products," the bolt, as a discrete type of matter, can be justified as a material, whereas the automobile can't. Second—answering the question of "what if a particular matter exists today but hasn't been thoroughly studied to determine its value to researchers and industrialists?"—the definition recognizes that the material needs at a minimum recognition of a potential use case. This turns out to be OK, because if no use case has been identified, the matter still can be classified as an element, compound, or substance. It also insinuates that that element, compound, or substance with no use case isn't going to be used in the manufacturing of any material or product. Third, the definition also recognizes the recent phenomena of autonomous systems discovering new materials and whether or not those autonomous systems should be credited with inventorship.[14] The question of inventorship is certainly worth discussion, though it is beyond the scope of this guide. Regardless, the use of automated systems to match a set of properties of a particular matter to a real-world use case isn't likely to go away, and this definition accepts that likelihood.

Finally, this leads us to the realization that materials, by definition, are inherently linked to the act of intentional human- or automation-driven creation, i.e., manufacturing and construction.


1.1 Materials testing labs, then and now

1.1.1 Materials testing 2.0


1.2 Industries, products, and raw materials

1.3 Laboratory roles and activities in the industry

1.3.1 R&D roles and activities

1.3.2 Pre-manufacturing and manufacturing roles and activities

1.3.3 Post-production quality control and regulatory roles and activities

References

  1. ↑ Richardson, James H.; Peterson, Ronald V. (1974). "Chapter 1: Introduction to Analytical Methods". Systematic Materials Analysis, Part 1. Materials science series. New York: Academic Press. p. 2. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-587801-2.X5001-0. ISBN 978-0-12-587801-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=BNocpYI8gJkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Systematic+Materials+analysis&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjB1OeQx-aAAxWnmmoFHSV2BSsQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=Systematic%20Materials%20analysis&f=false. 
  2. ↑ Das, Abinash; Ringu, Togam; Ghosh, Sampad; Pramanik, Nabakumar (1 July 2023). "A comprehensive review on recent advances in preparation, physicochemical characterization, and bioengineering applications of biopolymers" (in en). Polymer Bulletin 80 (7): 7247–7312. doi:10.1007/s00289-022-04443-4. ISSN 0170-0839. PMC PMC9409625. PMID 36043186. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00289-022-04443-4. 
  3. ↑ Kurniawan, Nicholas A.; Bouten, Carlijn V.C. (1 April 2018). "Mechanobiology of the cell–matrix interplay: Catching a glimpse of complexity via minimalistic models" (in en). Extreme Mechanics Letters 20: 59–64. doi:10.1016/j.eml.2018.01.004. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352431617301864. 
  4. ↑ Kim, Hyun S.; Kumbar, Sangamesh G.; Nukavarapu, Syam P. (1 March 2021). "Biomaterial-directed cell behavior for tissue engineering" (in en). Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering 17: 100260. doi:10.1016/j.cobme.2020.100260. PMC PMC7839921. PMID 33521410. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S246845112030057X. 
  5. ↑ Richardson, James H.; Peterson, Ronald V. (1974). "Preface". Systematic Materials Analysis, Part 1. Materials science series. New York: Academic Press. p. xiii. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-587801-2.X5001-0. ISBN 978-0-12-587801-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=BNocpYI8gJkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Systematic+Materials+analysis&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjB1OeQx-aAAxWnmmoFHSV2BSsQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=Systematic%20Materials%20analysis&f=false. 
  6. ↑ Modrák, Marcel; Trebuňová, Marianna; Balogová, Alena Findrik; Hudák, Radovan; Živčák, Jozef (16 March 2023). "Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering: Development, Classification and Current Applications" (in en). Journal of Functional Biomaterials 14 (3): 159. doi:10.3390/jfb14030159. ISSN 2079-4983. PMC PMC10051288. PMID 36976083. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4983/14/3/159. 
  7. ↑ Callister, William D.; Rethwisch, David G. (2021). "Chapter 1. Introduction". Fundamentals of materials science and engineering: An integrated approach. Hoboken: Wiley. pp. 2–18. ISBN 978-1-119-74773-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=NC09EAAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover. 
  8. ↑ Sutton, Adrian P. (2021). Concepts of materials science (First edition ed.). Oxford [England] ; New York, NY: Oxford University Oress. ISBN 978-0-19-284683-9. 
  9. ↑ "ISO 10303-45:2019 Industrial automation systems and integration — Product data representation and exchange — Part 45: Integrated generic resource: Material and other engineering properties". International Organization for Standardization. November 2019. https://www.iso.org/standard/78581.html. Retrieved 20 September 2023. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Swindells, Norman (2009). "The Representation and Exchange of Material and Other Engineering Properties" (in en). Data Science Journal 8: 190–200. doi:10.2481/dsj.008-007. ISSN 1683-1470. http://datascience.codata.org/articles/abstract/10.2481/dsj.008-007/. 
  11. ↑ Mies, D. (2002). "Chapter 17. Managing Materials Data". In Kutz, Myer. Handbook of materials selection. New York: J. Wiley. p. 499. ISBN 978-0-471-35924-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=gWg-rchM700C&pg=PA499. 
  12. ↑ "raw material". Oxford English Dictionary. https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?scope=Entries&q=raw+material. Retrieved 20 September 2023. 
  13. ↑ Lagowski, J.J.; Mason, B.H.; Tayler, R.J. (16 August 2023). "chemical element". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element. Retrieved 20 September 2023. 
  14. ↑ Ishizuki, Naoya; Shimizu, Ryota; Hitosugi, Taro (31 December 2023). "Autonomous experimental systems in materials science" (in en). Science and Technology of Advanced Materials: Methods 3 (1): 2197519. doi:10.1080/27660400.2023.2197519. ISSN 2766-0400. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/27660400.2023.2197519. 
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