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Here we take a brief look at the history of the laboratory to help give perspective about ''why'' they're important to modern life.
<div class="nonumtoc">__TOC__</div>
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<div align="center">-----Return to [[LII:The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!|the beginning]] of this guide-----</div>
==Sandbox begins below==
__TOC__
Material testing can focus on specific industries (e.g., automotive, construction, and pharmaceutical), products (e.g., car seats, asphalt, and medical devices), or raw materials (e.g., steel, gravel, and zirconia ceramic).


==1. Laboratories: A historical perspective==
About chemical testing of raw materials https://a2la.org/accreditation/chemical-testing/
===Introduction===
[[File:iPhone Internals.jpg|thumb|right|200px|What laboratory-based research went into the development of this iPhone?]]Take note of your surroundings. If you're indoors, what objects are nearby? If you're outdoors, what objects are on your person? Are you in a vehicle such as an automobile, bus, or airplane? Are you using a mobile phone, desktop computer, tablet, or laptop? What of the clothes you wear, the food you eat, and the water you drink?


What do all these things have in common? A laboratory was likely involved at some point before you made observation of them.
Material testing domains:
* Aerospace
**Adhesives
**Composites
**Fasteners
**Paints and primers
**Sealants
**Etc.
*Automotive
**Adhesives
**Coatings
**Foams
**Lighting and high-visibility solutions
**Plastics
**Seating
**Etc.
*Carbon
**Activated carbon
**Coal tar
**Etc.
*Coatings, linings, and sealants
**Ceramic coatings
**Metal coatings
**Pipe linings
**Thermal sprays
**Etc.
*Construction and engineering
**Asphalt
**Brick and tile
**Fasteners
**Fenestration and glazing products (i.e., windows, doors, glass)
**Geosynthetics
**Plumbing
**Soil
**Etc.
* Insulation, foam, and composites
**Fiberglass
**Flexible and laminate urethane foam composite
**Polyester resins
**Etc.
*Lubricants and thickeners
**Metallic stearates
**Powdered metal
**Pre-formed grease thickeners
**Etc.
* Medical devices
**Ceramics
**Metals
**Screws
**Etc.
*Metals
**Aluminum
**Castings
**Copper
**Rebar
**Steel
**Tubing
**Welds
**Zinc
**Etc.
* Packaging and labeling
**Cardboard
**Label adhesives
**Pharmaceutical packaging
**Sterile barrier materials
**Etc.
* Paints and oils
**Interior/Exterior paints
**Organic coatings
**Paint on parts
**Transformer oil
**Etc.
* Paper
**Cellulose paper tape
**Crepe paper and tubes
**Kraft paper
**Pressboard
**Etc.
*Polymers and plastics
**Biopolymers
**Condoms and gloves
**Payment cards
**O-rings
**[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1751616121005105 Silicone-based biological tissue mimics]
**Thermoplastic resins
**Etc.
* Raw materials
**Food and beverage ingredients
**Elemental material
**Pharmaceutical ingredients
**Etc.
* Reference materials
**Cannabinoids
**Coals and cokes
**Elemental gasses
**Isotope reference material
**Organic analytical reference material
**Pesticides
**Etc.
*Rubbers
**Bump stops
**Gloves
**Neoprene
**Silicone
**Tires
**Etc.
*Electronics and energy devices
**Batteries
**Semiconductors
**Solar panels
**Transformers
**Etc.
*Textiles
**Carpet
**Drapery
**Non-woven fabrics
**Upholstery
**Etc.
*Wood
**Dowel
**Flooring
**Lumber
**Medium-density fibreboard (MDF)
**Etc.


For some this will be an obvious but uninteresting point. "Why should I care that a laboratory was somehow involved in a product's creation?" some may say. For others the association isn't as obvious. "How is a laboratory involved with the ink pen on my desk or water I drink?" they might ask.
Test method developers:
 
* Aerospace Industries Association (AIA/NAS/NASM)
Both of these questions are valid and productive, particularly to the inquisitive mind. To the first, we could simply reply with something about quality assurance, safety, and more efficient design regarding the items we interact with on a daily basis. But it's a bit more complicated than that. And so is the reply to the second question: it's more than just research and design (R&D) and quality control.
* American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA)
 
* American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Laboratories play an important role in modern life, ubiquitous and often unseen by the average person. They improve quality of life, act as hotbeds of discovery, and help us make sense of our universe, particularly in the capable hands of the tens of thousands of professionals who work in them. But the laboratory as we know it today is actually a relatively new concept. It wasn't always as sectionally organized, well staffed, and well equipped. To gain a better sense of how common the laboratory is to our lives, we first briefly look at the past history of laboratory research and how it developed from a philosophical and more selfish endeavor to one more focused on analysis and the benefits to society.
* American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
 
* American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC)
===What is a laboratory?===
* American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Even when we go back in time nearly two centuries, we discover that the "essentials and requisites of a laboratory"<ref name="FaradayChemical1831">{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L34IAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Chemical Manipulation |author=Faraday, M. |editor=Mitchell, J.K |publisher=Carey and Lea |year=1831 |edition=2nd |pages=689}}</ref> — i.e., what makes a laboratory a laboratory — today practically mirror those of long ago. (See the following sections for the historical development of the laboratory.) These "essentials and requisites," as notable scientist Michel Faraday referred to them in the 1831 second edition of his book ''Chemical Manipulation'' (though note that the word "scientist" didn't appear until three years later, when Cambridge philosopher William Whewell coined it as "the name for a new way of earning a living"<ref name="TurnerNineteenth83">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FaAYfJYVNXQC&printsec=frontcover |title=Nineteenth-Century Scientific Instruments |author=Turner, G. L'E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |pages=320 |isbn=9780520051607}}</ref>), can under a modern context be broken down into five categories:
* American Petroleum Institute (API)
 
* American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
# skilled, knowledgeable people
* American Welding Society (AWS)
# facilities
* American Wood Protection Association (AWPA)
# equipment and instrumentation
* AOAC International (Association of Official Agricultural Chemists; AOAC)
# consumables
* ASTM International (ASTM)
# experiment/test data and its management
* Automakers (Ford, GM, Honda, PACCAR, Peugeot, Subaru, Tesla, Toyota, Volvo, etc.)
 
* Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
Let's examine these five categories through both the eyes of Faraday and of what we know today about laboratory function.
* Chemical Fabrics & Film Association (CFFA)
 
* Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
====Skilled, knowledgeable people====
* Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN)
The idea of having multiple people assisting with lab experiments was still in its infancy during Faraday’s early work life; in his book ''Chemical Manipulation'' he refers to having help in the lab as "[t]hose persons whose fortunes enable them to have an assistant operator, on whose accuracy and intelligence they can depend." (p. 580)<ref name="FaradayChemical1831" /> Regardless, he fully recognized the importance of proper instruction for the people who worked in a laboratory, emphasizing it not only in the preface but throughout the book. In essence, he was saying knowledgeable people were necessary, without which the march of scientific discovery wouldn't move forward. It wasn't until decades later, following by example of Germany, that the belief "[a] laboratory without this working force cannot do much for the promotion of science"<ref name="MechanicsTheLab1884">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAZHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA290 |title=The Laboratory in Modern Science |journal=Mechanics |publisher=David Williams |volume=5 |issue=120 |date=19 April 1884 |page=290}}</ref> gained broader recognition.
* Electronic Components Industry Association (ECIA/EIA)
 
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
Today we see how having skilled, knowledgeable people in the laboratory setting proves vital. Secondary and higher education institutions still act as important disseminators of scientific knowledge for those who will go on to work within the confines of laboratories of all types. And when gaps are identified in the professional knowledge base, professional organizations and standards developers help pick up the slack with draft guidance, standards, and educational outreach. In the end, we quickly realize that no amount of fancy instruments and exotic experiments will move the intangible bar of scientific progress forward without the properly trained people to use and conduct them.
* Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS)
 
* FM Approvals (FM)
====Facilities====
* GE Aerospace (GE)
What is a laboratory if not a location, specially designed to perform experiments and analysis? Faraday noted the following about the laboratory as a facility in 1831 (p. 17)<ref name="FaradayChemical1831" />:
* Government and military (MIL, [https://fedspecs.gsa.gov/s/federal-standards Fed], Consumer Product Safety Commission, CSFA, EPA, FDA, MMM, NAVSEA, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, etc.)
 
* Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
<blockquote>As the Laboratory is a spot where every chemist will pass a great portion of his time, it is natural that its arrangement and furniture should at first claim much of his attention; for being the place peculiarly fitted up for the performance of chemical experiments, fitness for that purpose must have material influence over the facilities required for those practical exercises, which by their results are so important in the formation and correction of his opinions.</blockquote>
* Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 
* International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) ([https://www.iaea.org/topics/material-analysis 1], [https://www.iaea.org/topics/other-non-destructive-testing 2], [https://www.iaea.org/topics/materials 3])
Faraday shortly after described the placement and design needs of a laboratory, emphasizing sufficient space and lighting, though from a nineteenth-century point-of-view. From a modern viewpoint, these same aspects are emphasized, plus many more factors buttressed by nearly 200 more years of design experience. In fact, design considerations for laboratory facilities are so important that in [[LII:The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!/A framework for the laboratories in our lives|the next chapter]] we discuss how modern design theory for laboratories plays an important role in creating a framework to better understand where labs fit into our lives. Funny that: by way of study of a lab's architectural design we arrive at both the practical activities of a laboratory and the semi-abstract placement it holds within society.
* International Code Council (ICC-ES)
 
* International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
====Equipment and instrumentation====
* International Maritime Organization (IMO)
In his book, Faraday pays reverence to the instrument and the vital nature of "the clear comprehension of the manner of using it" (p. 31)<ref name="FaradayChemical1831" /> while noting in passing that the "correction and construction of an instrument" should be left to the "workman." (This was a way of saying "I'm focusing more on explaining to the reader how to use the instrument; I'll leave the construction and calibration of it to the experts.")  
* International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 
* International Safe Transit Association (ISTA)
In his day the balance was essential to the laboratory, as were hydrometers, thermometers, and graduated cylinders. The "electrical revolution" of the second half of the nineteenth century brought even more instrumentation that "changed the whole way of life of western Europe and North America by universalizing a science-based technology."<ref name="TurnerNineteenth83" /> Today those same instruments are in use in laboratories, plus a multitude more that he likely could never have imagined, including DNA sequencers and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) instruments. And just like people, instrumentation and equipment is just as vital to the laboratory; skilled laboratory scientists won't be able to analyze samples/specimens or conduct experiments in an empty facility. Like any job, the appropriate tools make it easier to do.
* IPC International (Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits; IPC)
 
* Japanese Standards Association (JAS/JIS)
====Consumables====
* NACE International (National Association of Corrosion Engineers; NACE)
Faraday didn't speak of consumables — items meant to be used up and replaced — broadly in his laboratory treatise, but he recognized certain consumables need to be present and well stocked. "Distilled water must be included among the chemist's requisites; and so much advantage is gained by its abundant supply, that any accessible source should be eagerly sought," he noted. (pp. 27–28)<ref name="FaradayChemical1831" /> He spoke similarly of solvents and other chemicals and test substances, vital in placement and sufficient quantity for conducting chemical experiments.
* National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
 
* [https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/structures/manuals/scm/repository/SCM_4th_Edition_1-2018.pdf New York State Steel Construction Manual (NNSSCM/SCM)]
Today the definition of laboratory consumables has most certainly expanded beyond the elements, minerals, solvents, etc. of Faraday's time. Managing consumables can become costly, too. In 2005 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 30-plus labs spent more than $7 million a year on supplies and consumables, utilizing more than 800 vendors, prompting them to put into place high-level oversight to better monitor use and cost.<ref name="FilosaManaging14">{{cite web |url=https://www.genengnews.com/resources/managing-laboratory-consumables/ |title=Managing Laboratory Consumables |author=Filosa, A. |work=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News |publisher=Mary Ann Liebert, Inc |date=15 September 2014 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> Consumables even pop up in unexpected places; dry labs such as footwear R&D labs depend on consumables such as rubber, cloth, and fabric.<ref name="RoseTheCrit14">{{cite web |url=https://www.satra.com/bulletin/article.php?id=1346 |title=The critical role of laboratory consumables |work=SATRA Bulletin |author=Rose, S. |publisher=SATRA Technology Centre |date=November 2014 |page=44 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
* NSF International (National Sanitation Foundation; NSF)
 
* Pressure Sensitive Tape Council (PSTC)
====Experiment/test data and its management====
* Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA)
Why does a laboratory exist in the first place? We get into that topic more in the next chapter, where we discuss the functions of a laboratory, which most typically include analysis, calibration, research/design, quality analysis/control (QA/QC), and teaching. But for now know that out of those functions always comes some sort of experimental or test data as well as ancillary information related to it. Historically, these experiment and test results were manually documented. We turn to Faraday in 1831 again for more historical perspective (p. 576)<ref name="FaradayChemical1831" />:
* Suppliers of Advanced Composite Materials Association (SACMA)
 
* SAE International (SAE/AMS/AS)
<blockquote>The laboratory note-book, intended to receive the account of the results of experiments, should always be at hand, as should also pen and ink. All the results worthy of record should be entered at the time the experiments are made, whilst the things themselves are under the eye, and can re-examined if doubt or difficulty arise. The practice of delaying to note, until the end of a train of experiments, or to the conclusion of the day, is a bad one, as it then becomes difficult accurately to remember the succession of events. There is a probability also that some important point which may suggest itself during the writing, cannot then be ascertained by reference to experiment, because of its occurrence to the mind at too late a period.</blockquote>
* TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry; TAPPI)
 
* Truss Plate Institute (TPI)
This manual documentation of results has continued as such up until the past few decades, when the information age began to bring computational data analysis, storage, and management to laboratories in the form of [[electronic laboratory notebook]]s (ELNs)<ref name="EarlyELN">{{cite journal |editor=Matthews, Marge |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5647/m1/48/ |title=Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education |journal=Chemical Information Bulletin, A Publication of the Division of Chemical Information of the ACS |publisher=University of North Texas Digital Library |pages=64 |year=1993 |volume=45 |issue=3 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="MMattChemEd">{{cite journal |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5647/m1/48/ |title=Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education |journal=Chemical Information Bulletin, A Publication of the Division of Chemical Information of the ACS |editor=Matthews, M. |publisher=University of North Texas Digital Library |pages=46 |year=1993 |volume=45 |issue=3 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="BormanELNRev">{{cite journal |journal=Chemical Engineering News |year=1994 |volume=72 |issue=21 |pages=10–20 |title=Electronic Laboratory Notebooks May Revolutionize Research Record Keeping |author=Borman, S. |doi=10.1021/cen-v072n021.p010}}</ref> and [[laboratory information management system]]s (LIMS)<ref name="LIMSHistory">{{cite journal |journal=Laboratory Automation and Information Management |year=1996 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |title=A brief history of LIMS |author=Gibbon, G.A. |doi=10.1016/1381-141X(95)00024-K}}</ref>. The adoption and further development of these and other [[laboratory informatics]] systems have made many of the difficulties Faraday mentioned largely forgotten, particularly when good data management practices are put into place.<ref name="MichenerTenSimple15">{{cite journal |title=Ten Simple Rules for Creating a Good Data Management Plan |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |author=Michener, W.K. |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=e1004525 |year=2015 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004525 |pmid=26492633 |pmc=PMC4619636}}</ref> But with these advances come other concerns, including the amount of data being produced in many laboratories (big data)<ref name="TolanBigData15">{{cite journal |title="Big Data" in Laboratory Medicine |journal=Clinical Chemistry |author=Tolan, N.V.; Parnas, M.L.; Baudhuin, L.M. et al. |volume=61 |issue=12 |pages=1433–40 |year=2015 |doi=10.1373/clinchem.2015.248591 |pmid=26487761}}</ref> and how research data is being shared (or the lack of sharing thereof).<ref name="Rowhani-FaridWhat17">{{cite journal |title=What incentives increase data sharing in health and medical research? A systematic review |journal=Research Integrity and Peer Review |author=Rowhani-Farid, A.; Allen, M.; Barnett, A.G. |volume=2 |page=4 |year=2017 |doi=10.1186/s41073-017-0028-9}}</ref>
* UL Standards and Engagement (UL)
 
* United States Pharmacopeia Convention (USP)
<br />
<div align="center"><hr width="50%"></div>
<br />
Combining what we've said of these five categories, we better understand what makes up a laboratory. It exists to conduct one or more functions: analysis, calibration, research/design, quality analysis/control (QA/QC), and teaching. In other words, the laboratorians within the facility that holds the laboratory analyze clinical specimens or experimental samples; verify and calibrate laboratory instruments; conduct research and/or design new products; gauge and help enforce quality standards; and train future generations of laboratorians. These functions couldn't be performed effectively without appropriately designed facilities, proper instruments, and sufficient consumables. And of course, these functions (as well as the ancillary business and management activities) of a lab produce raw data, which must be analyzed, stored, and distributed in a secure and efficient manner. The end result? Well, that becomes more obvious when we start looking at their benefits (below) and where all the labs are and how they operate (beginning later in the third chapter).
 
===Origins of the laboratory===
Among the earliest known organized scientific study was that under the rule of the early Ptolomies of Alexandria in the third century B.C. While little to no evidence seems to exist for public or organized laboratories during this time period, researchers and historians widely accept the idea that at least organized and individual research (meaning "direct personal contact with the objects of study, and by the aid of such appliances as were then available"<ref name="WelchTheEvolution20">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utc0AQAAMAAJ&pg=200 |chapter=The Evolution of Modern Scientific Laboratories |title=Papers and Addresses by William Henry Welch |author=Welch, William Henry |volume=3 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins Press |year=1920 |pages=200–211}}</ref>) into anatomy, physiology, and medicine occurred.<ref name="ZilselTheSocial03">{{cite book |title=The Social Origins of Modern Science |chapter=The Genesis of the Concept of Scientific Progress and Cooperation |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |author=Zilsel, E. |editor=Cohen, R.S., Wartofsky, M.W. |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |year=2003 |pages=130–171 |isbn=1402013590}}</ref><ref name="MartinSomeThoughts1888">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Raw-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256 |title=Physiological Papers |chapter=Some Thoughts About Laboratories |author=Martin, H.N. |publisher=The John Hopkins Press |pages=256–264 |year=1895}}</ref><ref name="WelchTheEvolution20" /><ref name="SerageldinAncient13">{{cite journal |title=Ancient Alexandria and the dawn of medical science |journal=Global Cardiology Science & Practice |author=Serageldin, I. |volume=2013 |issue=4 |pages=395–404 |year=2013 |doi=10.5339/gcsp.2013.47 |pmid=24749113 |pmc=PMC3991212}}</ref> Dissections and experiments took place, but certainly not in an organized teaching or research laboratory setting like today. Early twentieth-century philosopher of science Edgar Zilsel suggested that scientific endeavor was non-collaborative in this early era, and the laboratory as a collaborative environment simply didn't exist<ref name="ZilselTheSocial03" />:
 
<blockquote>No publications, no astronomical or geographical investigation which are the work of several collaborating scientists are known. Even the learned compendia of the Roman period (Varro, Pliny, Celsus) and the encyclopedias of late antiquity (Boëthius) were composed by single polyhistors. There is no evidence that the Alexandrian Museum conjointly carried out investigations. Laboratories, the birth places of scientific co-operation in the modern era, existed neither in the Alexandrian Museum, nor in the Academy, nor in the Lyceum. As far as the fellow scholars of the museum did not work each for himself they might have contented themselves with dinners and debates. And of course, there were in antiquity no scientific periodicals in which new findings could have been discussed.</blockquote>
 
With scientific advancement and discovery still largely a personal (i.e., prestigious) goal, even through to the Renaissance humanists of the fourteenth through sixteenth century A.D.<ref name="ZilselTheSocial03" />, it took quite some time for both the private and public laboratory to evolve. To be certain, private laboratories surely existed, from Aristotle<ref name="WelchTheEvolution20" /> (third century B.C.) to the anatomical laboratory — "the first scientific laboratory" — that began to take hold in the late thirteenth to early fourteenth century<ref name="WelchTheEvolution20" /><ref name="WalkerClinical90">{{cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201/ |title=Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations |chapter=Chapter 1: The Origins of the History and Physical Examination |author=Walker, H.K. |editor=Walker, H.K.; Hall, W.D.; Hurst, J.W. |edition=3rd |publisher=Butterworths |year=1990 |isbn=040990077X}}</ref>, all the way to the "zenith" of the alchemical research laboratory in the second half of the sixteenth century.<ref name="Martinón-TorresA16th03">{{cite journal |title=A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab: Archaeometric study of the laboratory equipment from Oberstockstall (Kirchberg am Wagram, Austria) |journal=Antiquity |author=Martinón-Torres, M.; Rehren, T.; von Osten, S. |volume=77 |issue=298 |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/martinon298}}</ref> But it wouldn't be until the late sixteenth to early seventeenth century that collaboratory science and the first university-affiliated labs would appear.
 
Zilsel claimed that Italian polymath Galileo Galilei, while teaching at the University of Padua from 1592 to 1610, founded the first university-affiliated laboratory in his own home, with help from craftsmen who aided in researching architectural and mechanical concepts.<ref name="ZilselTheSocio00">{{cite journal |title=The Sociological Roots of Science |journal=Social Studies of Science |author=Zilsel, E. |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=935–949 |year=2000 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/285793}}</ref> As Galileo was nearing completion of his professorship at Padua, chemist Johannes Hartmann opened up a university laboratory for students at the University of Marburg in 1609, albeit for "instruction not in [chemical] analysis — still in a very rudimentary state — but in pharmaceutical preparations."<ref name="IhdeTheDevelop84">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89BIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262 |title=The Development of Modern Chemistry |chapter=Chapter 10: The Diffusion of Chemical Knowledge |author=Ihde, A.J. |publisher=Dover Publications |pages=259–276 |year=1984 |isbn=0486642356}}</ref> One of the first actual public laboratories dedicated to chemical instruction was founded later that century, in 1683, hosted at the University of Altdorf, created and directed by physician and professor Johan Moritz Hofmann.<ref name="IhdeTheDevelop84" /><ref name="WiechmannChemistry1899">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4k-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83 |title=Chemistry: Its Evolution and Achievements |author=Wiechmann, F.G. |series=Science Sketches |publisher=William R. Jenkins |location=New York |pages=176 |year=1899}}</ref><ref name="LockemannFriedrich53">{{cite journal |title=Friedrich Stromeyer and the history of chemical laboratory instruction |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |author=Lockemann, G.; Oesper, R.E. |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=202–204 |year=1953 |doi=10.1021/ed030p202}}</ref> That same year the (Old) Ashmolean played host to Britain's first university laboratory, directed by chemistry chair Robert Plot.<ref name="BowenTheBalliol70">{{cite journal |title=The Balliol-Trinity Laboratories, Oxford 1853-1940 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |author=Bowen, E.J. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=227–236 |year=1970 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/530877}}</ref><ref name="Martinón-TorresTheArch11">{{cite journal |title=The Archaeology of Alchemy and Chemistry in the Early Modern World: An Afterthought |journal=Archaeology International |author=Martinón-Torres, M. |volume=15 |pages=33–36 |year=2011-2012 |doi=10.5334/ai.1508}}</ref>
 
By the end of the seventeenth century, textbooks on various subjects such as anatomy<ref name="BartholinTheAnat15">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9o_CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |title=The Anatomy House in Copenhagen |author=Bartholin, T. |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |pages=222 |year=2015 |isbn=9788763542593}}</ref> and chemistry<ref name="WiechmannChemistry1899" /> had become more notable, and numerous vital scientific measurement and observation devices — including astronomy equipment — had been created.<ref name="BronfenbrennerTheRole1913">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-v4CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11 |title=The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century |author=Bronfenbrenner, M.O. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=308 |year=1913}}</ref> And most importantly, as early twentieth century political science researcher Martha Ornstein put it, after much build-up, finally "the [public] chemical and physical laboratory existed in embryonic form."<ref name="BronfenbrennerTheRole1913" />
 
===Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century laboratories===
[[File:Friedrich Strohmeyer.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Friedrich Strohmeyer played an important role in chemical and mineralogical analysis; he was also one of the first professors to promote and enact hands-on chemical analysis for students in a laboratory setting.]]The eighteenth century saw the "embryonic" laboratories develop further, but in truth in wasn't until the nineteenth century that the age of the laboratory in academic, hospital, and — particularly in the latter half of the century<ref name="WelchTheEvolution20" /><ref name="MMJSimon">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dooRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55 |journal=Maryland Medical Journal |title=The Importance of Laboratory Methods in Diagnosis |author=Simon, Charles E. |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=55–57 |date=9 May 1896}}</ref><ref name="ShoemakerChemical1884">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277 |journal=The Medical Bulletin: A Monthly Journal of Medicine and Surgery |title=Chemical Department at Jefferson Medical College |author=Shoemaker, John V. (ed.) |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=277–278 |date=November 1884 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="ElliottEditorial1898">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcjRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA57 |journal=Journal of Applied Microscopy |title=Editorial |author=Elliott, L. B. |volume=1 |issue=3 |date=March 1898 |pages=57–58 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref> — physician settings began to bloom. Some historians have described the changes that took place during these centuries as a transition from natural philosophy — sometimes referred to as "experimental philosophy" — and its "philosophical instruments" to natural or empirical science (or "physics," but not in the modern sense<ref name="BuchwaldPhysics03">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5qgGcZVOugC&pg=PA163 |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |chapter=Chapter 6: Physics |author=Buchwald, J.Z.; Hong, S. |editor=Cahan, D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |pages=163–195 |isbn=9780226089287}}</ref>) and the laboratory instruments used to better analyze and describe the physical and life sciences.<ref name="BuchwaldPhysics03" /><ref name="BennettCabinets13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJKiWjpCgAkC&pg=PA4 |title=Cabinets of Experimental Philosophy in Eighteenth-Century Europe |chapter=Cabinets for Experimental Philosophy in the Netherlands |author=Zuidervaart, H.J. |editor=Bennett, J.; Talas, S. |publisher=Brill |year=2013 |pages=1–26 |isbn=9789004252974}}</ref><ref name="KleinTheLab08">{{cite journal |title=The Laboratory Challenge: Some Revisions of the Standard View of Early Modern Experimentation |journal=Isis |author=Klein, U. |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=769-782 |year=2008 |doi=10.1086/595771}}</ref>
 
Even by the late eighteenth century, the laboratory was still viewed as a "workshop," a place for material (chemicals, colored glass, etc.) production.<ref name="SchmidgenTheLab11">{{cite web |url=http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/knowledge-spaces/henning-schmidgen-laboratory |title=The Laboratory |work=European History Online (EGO) |author=Schmidgen, H. |publisher=Institute of European History |date=08 August 2011 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> However, instances of scientists beginning to view laboratory teaching and hands-on analysis as vital slowly began to spring forth. For example, the laboratory teaching of practical or "physical chemistry" — separating itself even further by several decades from alchemical study — first took place in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1751 under the professorship of Mikhail Lomonosov. Two years prior he had built for him a small 15 x 9 meter brick structure where he developed colored glasses for mosaics, but he quickly turned his focus towards using the laboratory to teach students in physical chemistry, "a science which must explain by means of physical laws and experiments the cause of changes produced by chemical operations in composite bodies."<ref name="MenschutkinARussian1927">{{cite journal |title=A Russian physical chemist of the eighteenth century |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |author=Menschutkin, B.N. |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=1079–1087 |year=1927 |doi=10.1021/ed004p1079}}</ref> Three years later in Berlin, the Prussian Academy of Sciences' academic laboratory was founded with materials from a previously associated artisanal lab, signalling a shift "from commercial production to systematic observation and experimental exploration of the properties and chemical transformations of material substances."<ref name="KleinTheLab08" />
 
Speaking of German kingdoms, universities and associated laboratories in the region continued to build a renowned reputation on into the early and mid-nineteenth century.<ref name="SchmidgenTheLab11" /><ref name="MechanicsTheLab1884" /> In 1806, Friedrich Stromeyer, fresh from being named "extraordinary professor" after the death of Johann Friedrich Gmelin, took over as director of University of Göttingen's chemical laboratory. Stromeyer's strong opinion that students could only learn chemistry best through practice and self-analysis led to a subtle but significant change: the development of one of the first university laboratories in Germany to offer students hands-on chemical analysis.<ref name="LockemannFriedrich53" /><ref name="IhdeTheDevelop84" /> Following a similar path, Czech physiologist Johannes Evangelista Purkinje, upon being appointed a professor at the University of Breslau (then a part of Germany), set up a private physiology laboratory in 1824 within his own house and taught students from it. Impressed by his work, the government eventually helped Purkinje set up the world's first professional physiology laboratory in 1842, known as the Physiological Institute.<ref name="GarrisonAnIntro1921">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA486 |title=An Introduction to the History of Medicine |author=Garrison, F.H. |publisher=W.B. Saunders Company |chapter=XI: The Nineteenth Century: The Beginnings of Organized Advancement of Science |edition=3rd |year=1921 |pages=486–488}}</ref><ref name="MechanicsTheLab1884" /> And in 1826, at the University of Giessen, influential chemist Justus Liebig began perhaps not the first but definitely one of the more influential teaching and analysis laboratories, his work influencing the future direction of German as well as international universities and institutes.<ref name="HolmesTheComp89">{{cite journal |title=The Complementarity of Teaching and Research in Liebig's Laboratory |journal=Osiris |author=Holmes, F.L. |volume=5 |pages=121-164 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/301795}}</ref><ref name="IhdeTheDevelop84" /> That carried over to Wilhelm Weber's physics lab at Göttingen University (1833), Franz Neumann's physics lab in Königsberg (1847), Robert Bunsen's chemical teaching and research laboratory in Heidelberg (''c.'' 1850), and Johann N. Czermak's ''spectatorium'' for physiology teaching in Leipzig (''c.'' 1870).<ref name="SchmidgenTheLab11" />
 
By the late eighteenth century, other countries marveled at the laboratories of the German-speaking countries.<ref name="SchmidgenTheLab11" /><ref name="MechanicsTheLab1884" /> Industrial labs began to pop up around the world, including the United States, with researchers "interested in getting patents recognized so as to have commercial control of the processes and products involved in their research."<ref name="SchmidgenTheLab11" /> Even physician laboratories began to take shape at the turn of the century as instruments such as centrifuges, microscopes, and microtomes became slightly easier to acquire.<ref name="ElliottEditorial1898" /><ref name="BartleyManualOfClin1899">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FqPVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA53 |title=Manual of Clinical Chemistry |author=Bartley, Elias H. |publisher=P. Blakiston's Son & Co |year=1899 |page=53 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> The role-based division of responsibilities within laboratories was also becoming entrenched into labs by the end of the century.<ref name="SchmidgenTheLab11" /><ref name="MechanicsTheLab1884" />
 
===Modern laboratories and their importance===
The twentieth century saw laboratories of all kinds grow, develop, and mature, though not without their share of difficulties. In the 1920s, for example, some U.S. physicians, specialists, and dentists complained heavily of the lack of quality standards, regulations, and ethics inherent in for-profit clinical, chemical, and radiological laboratories.<ref name="TaylorAdvert1920">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbEDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA229 |journal=Texas State Journal of Medicine |title=Advertising Medical Laboratories (Encore) |author=Taylor, Holman (ed.) |volume=16 |issue=6 |date=October 1920 |pages=229–230}}</ref><ref name="SondernCommer1921">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7hYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA390 |journal=New York State Journal of Medicine |title=Commercial Laboratories |author=Sondern, Frederic E. (ed.) |volume=21 |issue=10 |date=October 1921 |page=390}}</ref><ref name="WhiteTheRole1922">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA755 |journal=Kentucky Medical Journal |title=The Role of the Nonmedical Graduate in the Medical Laboratory |author=White, Courtland Y. |volume=25 |issue=11 |date=August 1922 |pages=755–760}}</ref><ref name="SundelofTheBus1922">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E741AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA442 |journal=The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal |title=The Business Side of X-ray Diagnosis and Treatment |author=Sundelof, E. M. |volume=186 |issue=13 |date=30 March 1922 |pages=442–444}}</ref> Other changes took place there too, particularly after World War II, when a fundamental transition took place, shifting many perceptions of what was the "Western" world from Europe to the U.S. This post-war shift also saw focus from the philosophical and theoretical laboratorian to the experimental and practical lab researcher, according to Pestre<ref name="PestreScience13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYUfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Science in the Twentieth Century |chapter=Chapter 4: Science, Political Power and the State |author=Pestre, D. |editor=Krige, J.; Pestre, D. |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |pages=61–76 |isbn=9057021722}}</ref>:
 
<blockquote>Fundamental theorists were still essential, and they were highly respected, but they no longer had that mythical status which was accorded to the founders of quantum mechanics. They were also in minority with those (the "phenomenologists") whose job it was to deal with the mass of experimental results produced in the laboratories. Seeking theories which were locally coherent and which could be immediately useful and produce numbers, their role was to display a practical efficiency. They thus participated in the development of a science which was increasingly integrated into its economic and political environment, and contributed to the multiplications of the sites where knowledge was produced. These were now the universities and the technical institutes, the national laboratories and the industrial laboratories (Siemens or General Electric), but also the myriad of small firms established as a result of government contracts.</blockquote>
 
This transition carried on to other parts of the world, where the Industrial Revolution gave way to the Scientific-Technical Revolution of the '50 and '60s, and that to the Information Age in roughly the late '70s to early '80s. Through all of these time periods to present day, we've seen the amount of information moving in and out of laboratories multiply drastically as well, particularly with the advent of data-producing analytical devices and data management tools, including genomics equipment such as DNA sequencers.<ref name="PollackDNA11">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/01/business/dna-sequencing-caught-in-deluge-of-data.html |title=DNA Sequencing Caught in Deluge of Data |author=Pollack, A. |work=The New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=30 November 2011 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>
 
Most importantly, however, is the ubiquity of the laboratory in our lives today. The previous quote from Pestre is important to note when thinking about this concept; today we see labs in all the places he mentioned as well as in other unexpected locations and fields of research, including the expanding cannabis industry.<ref name="DouglasPast17">{{cite web |url=https://www.limswiki.org/index.php/LII:Past,_Present,_and_Future_of_Cannabis_Laboratory_Testing_and_Regulation_in_the_United_States |title=Past, Present, and Future of Cannabis Laboratory Testing and Regulation in the United States, Third Edition |author=Douglas, S.E. |work=LIMSwiki.org |date=March 2020 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> Like the idea of the ubiquitous transistor and how easy it is to take for granted<ref name="GaudinTheTrans07">{{cite web |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2538123/the-transistor--the-most-important-invention-of-the-20th-century-.html |title=The transistor: The most important invention of the 20th century? |author=Gaudin, S. |work=Computerworld |publisher=IDG Communication, Inc |date=12 December 2007 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>, the laboratory is also found everywhere, sometimes obvious (when you need to have blood drawn for a medical test) and other times not at all (the U.S. Navy's Arctic Submarine Laboratory<ref name="USNArctic">{{cite web |url=https://www.sublant.usff.navy.mil/ASL/ |title=Arctic Submarine Lab |publisher=United States Navy |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref>).
 
And these labs are important, positively impacting industry, government, and the public. Take for example the United States' Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, which claimed in 2020 to employ more than 3,400 people and have approximately $144 million total economic impact for the state.<ref name="ArgonneOurImpact">{{cite web |url=https://www.anl.gov/argonne-impacts/illinois |title=Argonne Impacts State by State: Illinois |work=Argonne National Laboratory |publisher=UChicago Argonne, LLC |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> Looking to the past, we find that Bell Telephone Laboratories at its peak employed some 1,200 PhDs and was responsible for the creation of vital technologies such as solid state components, wireless telephony technology, the C programming language, and the Unix operating system (thanks to Bell researchers like Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie).<ref name="GertnerTheIdea13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OkECDAAAQBAJ |title=The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation |author=Gertner, J. |publisher=Penguin |year=2013 |pages=422 |isbn=9780143122791}}</ref> In fact, laboratories are often at the heart of a company's R&D efforts towards bringing people new products. Vehicle<ref name="VolvoMaterials">{{cite web |url=http://www.volvogroup.com/en-en/about-us/r-d-and-innovations/materials-technology.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629222307/http://www.volvogroup.com/en-en/about-us/r-d-and-innovations/materials-technology.html |title=Materials Technology |work=Volvo Group |publisher=AB Volvo |archivedate=29 June 2017 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> and makeup<ref name="LOrealUSAResearch">{{cite web |url=http://www.lorealusa.com/group/discover-l%27or%C3%A9al-usa/l%E2%80%99or%C3%A9al-usa-research-and-innovation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232022/http://www.lorealusa.com/group/discover-l'or%C3%A9al-usa/l%E2%80%99or%C3%A9al-usa-research-and-innovation |title=L’Oréal USA Research And Innovation |publisher=L’Oréal Group |archivedate=21 October 2018 |accessdate=28 June 2022}}</ref> users alike are affected by manufacturing laboratories that research, design, test, and quality control their products. Clinical labs help keep current and future generations healthy, and forensic labs help bring justice to the wronged. And calibration laboratories are vital to ensuring the precise measurement and production values of any equipment those other laboratories strongly depend on.
 
In a quest to further put the prevalence of laboratories into perspective, we use examples similar to above to describe 20 common industries that find laboratories vital to their activities. But before we can do that, we need to first build a framework for better visualizing and understanding how labs intersect our lives, which we do in the next section.
 
<div align="center">-----Go to [[LII:The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!/A framework for the laboratories in our lives|the next chapter]] of this guide-----</div>
 
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJKiWjpCgAkC&pg=PA4 |title=Cabinets of Experimental Philosophy in Eighteenth-Century Europe |editor=Bennett, J.; Talas, S. |publisher=Brill |year=2013 |pages=296 |isbn=9789004252974}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Laboratory Challenge: Some Revisions of the Standard View of Early Modern Experimentation |journal=Isis |author=Klein, U. |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=769-782 |year=2008 |doi=10.1086/595771}}
* {{cite web |url=http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/knowledge-spaces/henning-schmidgen-laboratory |title=The Laboratory |work=European History Online (EGO) |author=Schmidgen, H. |publisher=Institute of European History |date=08 August 2011}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utc0AQAAMAAJ&pg=200 |chapter=The Evolution of Modern Scientific Laboratories |title=Papers and Addresses by William Henry Welch |author=Welch, William Henry |volume=3 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins Press |year=1920 |pages=200–211}}
 
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
==Citation information for this chapter==
'''Chapter''': 1. Laboratories: A historical perspective
 
'''Title''': ''The Laboratories of Our Lives: Labs, Labs Everywhere!''
 
'''Edition''': Second edition
 
'''Author for citation''': Shawn E. Douglas
 
'''License for content''': [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International]
 
'''Publication date''': July 2022
 
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Latest revision as of 18:07, 20 September 2023

This is sublevel8 of my sandbox, where I play with features and test MediaWiki code. If you wish to leave a comment for me, please see my discussion page instead.

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Material testing can focus on specific industries (e.g., automotive, construction, and pharmaceutical), products (e.g., car seats, asphalt, and medical devices), or raw materials (e.g., steel, gravel, and zirconia ceramic).

About chemical testing of raw materials https://a2la.org/accreditation/chemical-testing/

Material testing domains:

  • Aerospace
    • Adhesives
    • Composites
    • Fasteners
    • Paints and primers
    • Sealants
    • Etc.
  • Automotive
    • Adhesives
    • Coatings
    • Foams
    • Lighting and high-visibility solutions
    • Plastics
    • Seating
    • Etc.
  • Carbon
    • Activated carbon
    • Coal tar
    • Etc.
  • Coatings, linings, and sealants
    • Ceramic coatings
    • Metal coatings
    • Pipe linings
    • Thermal sprays
    • Etc.
  • Construction and engineering
    • Asphalt
    • Brick and tile
    • Fasteners
    • Fenestration and glazing products (i.e., windows, doors, glass)
    • Geosynthetics
    • Plumbing
    • Soil
    • Etc.
  • Insulation, foam, and composites
    • Fiberglass
    • Flexible and laminate urethane foam composite
    • Polyester resins
    • Etc.
  • Lubricants and thickeners
    • Metallic stearates
    • Powdered metal
    • Pre-formed grease thickeners
    • Etc.
  • Medical devices
    • Ceramics
    • Metals
    • Screws
    • Etc.
  • Metals
    • Aluminum
    • Castings
    • Copper
    • Rebar
    • Steel
    • Tubing
    • Welds
    • Zinc
    • Etc.
  • Packaging and labeling
    • Cardboard
    • Label adhesives
    • Pharmaceutical packaging
    • Sterile barrier materials
    • Etc.
  • Paints and oils
    • Interior/Exterior paints
    • Organic coatings
    • Paint on parts
    • Transformer oil
    • Etc.
  • Paper
    • Cellulose paper tape
    • Crepe paper and tubes
    • Kraft paper
    • Pressboard
    • Etc.
  • Polymers and plastics
  • Raw materials
    • Food and beverage ingredients
    • Elemental material
    • Pharmaceutical ingredients
    • Etc.
  • Reference materials
    • Cannabinoids
    • Coals and cokes
    • Elemental gasses
    • Isotope reference material
    • Organic analytical reference material
    • Pesticides
    • Etc.
  • Rubbers
    • Bump stops
    • Gloves
    • Neoprene
    • Silicone
    • Tires
    • Etc.
  • Electronics and energy devices
    • Batteries
    • Semiconductors
    • Solar panels
    • Transformers
    • Etc.
  • Textiles
    • Carpet
    • Drapery
    • Non-woven fabrics
    • Upholstery
    • Etc.
  • Wood
    • Dowel
    • Flooring
    • Lumber
    • Medium-density fibreboard (MDF)
    • Etc.

Test method developers:

  • Aerospace Industries Association (AIA/NAS/NASM)
  • American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA)
  • American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
  • American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
  • American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC)
  • American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
  • American Petroleum Institute (API)
  • American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
  • American Welding Society (AWS)
  • American Wood Protection Association (AWPA)
  • AOAC International (Association of Official Agricultural Chemists; AOAC)
  • ASTM International (ASTM)
  • Automakers (Ford, GM, Honda, PACCAR, Peugeot, Subaru, Tesla, Toyota, Volvo, etc.)
  • Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
  • Chemical Fabrics & Film Association (CFFA)
  • Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
  • Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN)
  • Electronic Components Industry Association (ECIA/EIA)
  • European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
  • Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS)
  • FM Approvals (FM)
  • GE Aerospace (GE)
  • Government and military (MIL, Fed, Consumer Product Safety Commission, CSFA, EPA, FDA, MMM, NAVSEA, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, etc.)
  • Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
  • Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
  • International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (1, 2, 3)
  • International Code Council (ICC-ES)
  • International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
  • International Maritime Organization (IMO)
  • International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
  • International Safe Transit Association (ISTA)
  • IPC International (Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits; IPC)
  • Japanese Standards Association (JAS/JIS)
  • NACE International (National Association of Corrosion Engineers; NACE)
  • National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
  • New York State Steel Construction Manual (NNSSCM/SCM)
  • NSF International (National Sanitation Foundation; NSF)
  • Pressure Sensitive Tape Council (PSTC)
  • Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA)
  • Suppliers of Advanced Composite Materials Association (SACMA)
  • SAE International (SAE/AMS/AS)
  • TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry; TAPPI)
  • Truss Plate Institute (TPI)
  • UL Standards and Engagement (UL)
  • United States Pharmacopeia Convention (USP)
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