Forensic science - Revision history

Avaughan at 15:14, 14 April 2021

2021-04-14T15:14:19Z

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	[[File:Day 253 - West Midlands Police - Forensic Science Lab (7969822920).jpg\|thumb\|400px\|The work of forensic science can occur both in and outside a specialized laboratory.]]		[[File:Day 253 - West Midlands Police - Forensic Science Lab (7969822920).jpg\|thumb\|400px\|The work of forensic science can occur both in and outside a specialized laboratory.]]
	'''Forensic science''' (often shortened to '''forensics''') is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences — from anthropology to toxicology<ref name="AAFSSections">{{cite web \|url=http://www.aafs.org/about-aafs/sections \|title=About AAFS - Sections \|publisher=American Academy of Forensic Sciences \|date=2016 \|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref> — to answer questions of interest to a legal system. During the course of an investigation, forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence using a variety of special [[laboratory]] equipment and special techniques for such interests. In addition to their laboratory role, the forensic ~~scientists~~ may also testify as an expert witness in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense.<ref name="TilstoneForensic06">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946 \|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="BrownForensic12">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LG_tuYwkbwYC&pg=PA16 \|title=Forensic Science: Advanced Investigations \|author=Brown, Rhonda; Davenport, Jackie \|publisher=South-Western Cengage Learning \|location=Mason, Ohio \|pages=528 \|year=2012 \|isbn=9780538450898 \|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref>		'''Forensic science''' (often shortened to '''forensics''') is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences — from anthropology to toxicology<ref name="AAFSSections">{{cite web \|url=http://www.aafs.org/about-aafs/sections \|title=About AAFS - Sections \|publisher=American Academy of Forensic Sciences \|date=2016 \|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref> — to answer questions of interest to a legal system. During the course of an investigation, forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence using a variety of special [[laboratory]] equipment and special techniques for such interests. In addition to their laboratory role, the forensic scientist may also testify as an expert witness in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense.<ref name="TilstoneForensic06">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946 \|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="BrownForensic12">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LG_tuYwkbwYC&pg=PA16 \|title=Forensic Science: Advanced Investigations \|author=Brown, Rhonda; Davenport, Jackie \|publisher=South-Western Cengage Learning \|location=Mason, Ohio \|pages=528 \|year=2012 \|isbn=9780538450898 \|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref>

	==History==		==History==

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2017-07-10T23:45:07Z

References: Added cat.

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	<!---Place all category tags here-->		<!---Place all category tags here-->
	[[Category:Branches of science]]		[[Category:Branches of science]]
			[[Category:Laboratory types]]

Shawndouglas: /* The forensic laboratory */ Added more content to lab section.

2017-07-10T23:41:31Z

The forensic laboratory: Added more content to lab section.

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	Much of the work of forensic science is conducted in the forensic laboratory. Such a laboratory has many similarities to a traditional [[clinical laboratory\|clinical]] or research lab in so much that it contains various lab instruments and several areas set aside for different tasks. However, it differs in other ways. Windows, for example, represent a point of entry into a forensic lab, which must be secure as it contains evidence to crimes. As such, a crime lab may have fewer windows.<ref name="SeigelForensic15">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSvSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 \|chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction to Forensic Science\|title=Forensic Science: The Basics \|edition=3rd \|author=Seigel, Jay A.; Mirakovits, Kathy \|publisher=CRC Press \|location=Boca Raton, Florida \|year=2015 \|isbn=9781482253375 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> The receiving area also tends to be different due to the nature of materials being tested. Though test specimens/samples need to be traceable just like clinical and research labs, the tested materials and evidence requires more rigorous procedures to ensure chain of custody is maintained. In modern times, this process may be enhanced with the use of data management systems such as a [[laboratory information management system]]. Additionally, the evidence will go to a locked storage area to limit access to individuals who could tamper with it. Additional locked storage areas may be available to each forensic scientist for securing evidence in their custody for analysis.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" />		Much of the work of forensic science is conducted in the forensic laboratory. Such a laboratory has many similarities to a traditional [[clinical laboratory\|clinical]] or research lab in so much that it contains various lab instruments and several areas set aside for different tasks. However, it differs in other ways. Windows, for example, represent a point of entry into a forensic lab, which must be secure as it contains evidence to crimes. As such, a crime lab may have fewer windows.<ref name="SeigelForensic15">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSvSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 \|chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction to Forensic Science\|title=Forensic Science: The Basics \|edition=3rd \|author=Seigel, Jay A.; Mirakovits, Kathy \|publisher=CRC Press \|location=Boca Raton, Florida \|year=2015 \|isbn=9781482253375 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> The receiving area also tends to be different due to the nature of materials being tested. Though test specimens/samples need to be traceable just like clinical and research labs, the tested materials and evidence requires more rigorous procedures to ensure chain of custody is maintained. In modern times, this process may be enhanced with the use of data management systems such as a [[laboratory information management system]]. Additionally, the evidence will go to a locked storage area to limit access to individuals who could tamper with it. Additional locked storage areas may be available to each forensic scientist for securing evidence in their custody for analysis.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" />

	Other ~~sections~~ of a forensic science laboratory may also stand out from the typical laboratory. It may contain a dedicated garage for searching and analyzing vehicles and other large structures. A ballistics section (for test-firing weapons for comparative evidence), document analysis section (with access to natural light), several chemistry sections (for toxicology, blood analysis, DNA), a controlled substance section (for drugs of abuse testing and storage), latent prints section (fingerprint analysis), and even a computer evidence section (forensic computer examination) may make up a full-function forensic lab.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" /><ref name="NIJFor98">{{cite web \|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/168106.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=Forensic Laboratories: Handbook for Facility Planning, Design, Construction, and Moving \|author=National Institute of Justice \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=April 1998 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>		Other activities typical to a forensic laboratory include<ref name="FBILabServ">{{cite web \|url=https://www.fbi.gov/services/laboratory \|title=Laboratory Services \|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation \|accessdate=10 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="ArmstrongServ">{{cite web \|url=http://www.aflab.com/services/ \|title=Forensic Services \|publisher=Armstrong Forensic Laboratory, Inc \|accessdate=10 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="LSUFACESServ">{{cite web \|url=http://www.lsu.edu/faceslab/leo.html#srv" \|title=Laboratory Services \|publisher=Louisiana State University \|accessdate=10 July 2017}}</ref>:

			* DNA analysis
			* fire debris analysis
			* metallurgical analysis
			* vehicle fluid analysis
			* trauma analysis
			* skeletal identification
			* body fluid identification
			* evidence screening
			* facial reconstruction
			* audio/image enhancement
			* carbon dating of remains

			A forensic science laboratory may also stand out from the typical laboratory in other ways. It may, for example, contain a dedicated garage for searching and analyzing vehicles and other large structures. A ballistics section (for test-firing weapons for comparative evidence), document analysis section (with access to natural light), several chemistry sections (for toxicology, blood analysis, DNA), a controlled substance section (for drugs of abuse testing and storage), latent prints section (fingerprint analysis), and even a computer evidence section (forensic computer examination) may also make up a full-function forensic lab.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" /><ref name="NIJFor98">{{cite web \|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/168106.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=Forensic Laboratories: Handbook for Facility Planning, Design, Construction, and Moving \|author=National Institute of Justice \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=April 1998 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> These diverse departments or sections of a lab fully represent the inherently cross-disciplined nature of forensic science. At times gaps may exist in knowledge and know-how in some areas of forensic analysis, requiring a laboratory to recruit outside help for more esoteric analyses.<ref name="NRCStrength09">{{cite book \|title=Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward \|author=National Research Council \|publisher=National Academies Press \|year=2009 \|pages=348 \|doi=10.17226/12589 \|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12589/strengthening-forensic-science-in-the-united-states-a-path-forward}}</ref>

	===Accrediting===		===Accrediting===

Shawndouglas: /* In the United States */Fixed punctuation error.

2017-07-10T23:34:58Z

In the United States: Fixed punctuation error.

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	In the United States in recent years, the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs has been a serious topic of discussion. At the turn of the twenty-first century, "a majority of the forensic laboratories in the United States [were] not accredited, and [had] not made the commitment to comply with consensus quality standards."<ref name="ArvizuFor00">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nlada.org/forensics/for_lib/Documents/1107453386.76/90ded0ef0fb5abe085256982004e0b8f%3FOpenDocument%26Highlight%3D0,eyewitness \|title=Forensic Labs: Shattering the Myth \|author=Arvizu, Janine \|work=The Champion \|publisher=National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers \|date=May 2000 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Only one accrediting body — the American Society of Criminal Laboratory Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB) — existed, membership was low (165 labs in May 2000), and 20 states didn't even have a single accredited lab. And some laboratory quality control experts such as Janine Arvizu found the technical rigor and independent nature of the ASCLD to be lacking.<ref name="ArvizuFor00" /><ref name="FischerTheFBI01">{{cite web \|url=http://www.kkc.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Whitehurst_GQ_The-FBIs-Dirty-Tricks-Jan-2001.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=The FBI's Junk Science \|work=GQ \|publisher=Advance Publications \|date=January 2001 \|pages=114–117, 148–149 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Questions were being asked of the legitimacy of the federal FBI crime labs as well as state-run labs such as the then new Jamaica, Queens crime lab in New York and the Houston crime lab.<ref name="FischerTheFBI01" /><ref name="MarzulliNYPD99">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/nypd-new-crime-lab-fails-major-inspection-article-1.849802 \|title=NYPD's New Crime Lab Fails Major Inspection \|author=Marzulli, John \|work=NY Daily News \|publisher=Daily News, L.P \|date=29 November 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LiptakNew04">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/05/us/new-doubt-cast-on-testing-in-houston-police-crime-lab.html \|title=New Doubt Cast on Testing in Houston Police Crime Lab \|author=Liptak, Adam; Blumenthal, Ralph \|work=The New York Times \|publisher=The New York Times Company \|date=05 August 2004 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> (Some revelations about the poor quality of FBI crime labs prior to 2000 wouldn't be revealed until 2015.<ref name="HsuFBI15">{{cite web \|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/fbi-overstated-forensic-hair-matches-in-nearly-all-criminal-trials-for-decades/2015/04/18/39c8d8c6-e515-11e4-b510-962fcfabc310_story.html \|title=FBI admits flaws in hair analysis over decades \|author=Hsu, Spencer S. \|work=The Washington Post \|publisher=Nash Holdings LLC \|date=18 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LithwickPseudo15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/04/fbi_s_flawed_forensics_expert_testimony_hair_analysis_bite_marks_fingerprints.single.html \|title=Pseudoscience in the Witness Box \|author=Lithwick, Dahlia \|work=Slate \|publisher=The Slate Group, LLC \|date=22 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>)		In the United States in recent years, the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs has been a serious topic of discussion. At the turn of the twenty-first century, "a majority of the forensic laboratories in the United States [were] not accredited, and [had] not made the commitment to comply with consensus quality standards."<ref name="ArvizuFor00">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nlada.org/forensics/for_lib/Documents/1107453386.76/90ded0ef0fb5abe085256982004e0b8f%3FOpenDocument%26Highlight%3D0,eyewitness \|title=Forensic Labs: Shattering the Myth \|author=Arvizu, Janine \|work=The Champion \|publisher=National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers \|date=May 2000 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Only one accrediting body — the American Society of Criminal Laboratory Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB) — existed, membership was low (165 labs in May 2000), and 20 states didn't even have a single accredited lab. And some laboratory quality control experts such as Janine Arvizu found the technical rigor and independent nature of the ASCLD to be lacking.<ref name="ArvizuFor00" /><ref name="FischerTheFBI01">{{cite web \|url=http://www.kkc.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Whitehurst_GQ_The-FBIs-Dirty-Tricks-Jan-2001.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=The FBI's Junk Science \|work=GQ \|publisher=Advance Publications \|date=January 2001 \|pages=114–117, 148–149 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Questions were being asked of the legitimacy of the federal FBI crime labs as well as state-run labs such as the then new Jamaica, Queens crime lab in New York and the Houston crime lab.<ref name="FischerTheFBI01" /><ref name="MarzulliNYPD99">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/nypd-new-crime-lab-fails-major-inspection-article-1.849802 \|title=NYPD's New Crime Lab Fails Major Inspection \|author=Marzulli, John \|work=NY Daily News \|publisher=Daily News, L.P \|date=29 November 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LiptakNew04">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/05/us/new-doubt-cast-on-testing-in-houston-police-crime-lab.html \|title=New Doubt Cast on Testing in Houston Police Crime Lab \|author=Liptak, Adam; Blumenthal, Ralph \|work=The New York Times \|publisher=The New York Times Company \|date=05 August 2004 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> (Some revelations about the poor quality of FBI crime labs prior to 2000 wouldn't be revealed until 2015.<ref name="HsuFBI15">{{cite web \|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/fbi-overstated-forensic-hair-matches-in-nearly-all-criminal-trials-for-decades/2015/04/18/39c8d8c6-e515-11e4-b510-962fcfabc310_story.html \|title=FBI admits flaws in hair analysis over decades \|author=Hsu, Spencer S. \|work=The Washington Post \|publisher=Nash Holdings LLC \|date=18 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LithwickPseudo15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/04/fbi_s_flawed_forensics_expert_testimony_hair_analysis_bite_marks_fingerprints.single.html \|title=Pseudoscience in the Witness Box \|author=Lithwick, Dahlia \|work=Slate \|publisher=The Slate Group, LLC \|date=22 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>)

	The U.S. Department of Justice's National Institute of Justice had previously in February 1999 published a review of needs for forensic science, though it stopped short of recommending mandatory accreditation of forensic labs, only saying [[t]he profession should accredit/certify forensic academic training programs/institutions."<ref name="NIJForensicFeb99">{{cite web \|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/173412.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=Forensic Sciences: Review of Status and Needs \|author=National Institute of Justice \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=February 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> With little reform in site, many of the major representatives of forensic science requested that Congress form a committee to again study the needs of the community and make formal recommendations. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) eventually released its report in 2009. Among its recommendations: "Laboratory accreditation and individual certification of forensic science professionals should be mandatory, and all forensic science professional should have access to a certification process." It went on to make minimum requirements for lab accreditation and professional certification, receiving support from some law enforcement officials and scientists in the community.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" /><ref name="FitzpatrickTheNeed09">{{cite journal \|url=http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1888&issue_id=92009 \|title=The Need for Mandatory Accreditation and Certification \|journal=The Police Chief \|author=Fitzpatrick, Frank; Martin, Kenneth \|volume=76 \|issue=9 \|year=September 2009 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Dwyer-MossFlawed13">{{cite journal \|title=Flawed Forensics and the Death Penalty: Junk Science and Potentially Wrongful Executions \|journal=Seattle Journal for Social Justice \|author=Dwyer-Moss, Jessica \|volume=11 \|issue=2 \|pages=757–812 \|url=http://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sjsj/vol11/iss2/10 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>		The U.S. Department of Justice's National Institute of Justice had previously in February 1999 published a review of needs for forensic science, though it stopped short of recommending mandatory accreditation of forensic labs, only saying "[t]he profession should accredit/certify forensic academic training programs/institutions."<ref name="NIJForensicFeb99">{{cite web \|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/173412.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=Forensic Sciences: Review of Status and Needs \|author=National Institute of Justice \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=February 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> With little reform in site, many of the major representatives of forensic science requested that Congress form a committee to again study the needs of the community and make formal recommendations. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) eventually released its report in 2009. Among its recommendations: "Laboratory accreditation and individual certification of forensic science professionals should be mandatory, and all forensic science professional should have access to a certification process." It went on to make minimum requirements for lab accreditation and professional certification, receiving support from some law enforcement officials and scientists in the community.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" /><ref name="FitzpatrickTheNeed09">{{cite journal \|url=http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1888&issue_id=92009 \|title=The Need for Mandatory Accreditation and Certification \|journal=The Police Chief \|author=Fitzpatrick, Frank; Martin, Kenneth \|volume=76 \|issue=9 \|year=September 2009 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Dwyer-MossFlawed13">{{cite journal \|title=Flawed Forensics and the Death Penalty: Junk Science and Potentially Wrongful Executions \|journal=Seattle Journal for Social Justice \|author=Dwyer-Moss, Jessica \|volume=11 \|issue=2 \|pages=757–812 \|url=http://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sjsj/vol11/iss2/10 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>

	Today in the United States despite NAS recommendations, as of yet no national accrediting or overseeing body exists for overseeing and enforcing standard procedures. Some states require accreditation while others do not. States like Missouri, North Carolina, and Minnesota have enacted laws making accreditation mandatory<ref name="MOLaw650">{{cite web \|url=http://www.moga.mo.gov/mostatutes/stathtml/65000000601.HTML \|title=Missouri Revised Statutes, Chapter 650, Department of Public Safety, Section 650.060.1 \|publisher=Missouri General Assembly \|date=28 August 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="A2LAMissouri">{{cite web \|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2015/04/prweb12642557.htm \|title=A2LA Forensic Science Accreditation Program Approved in Missouri \|work=PRWeb \|publisher=Vocus PRW Holdings, LLC \|date=09 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="OlsonAcc13">{{cite web \|url=https://ncforensics.wordpress.com/2013/03/14/accreditation-of-local-crime-labs/ \|title=Accreditation of local crime labs \|author=Olson, Sarah Rackley \|work=Forensic Science in North Carolina \|publisher=Indigent Defense Services of NC \|date=14 March 2013 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="CollinsNew14">{{cite web \|url=http://www.mprnews.org/story/2014/04/25/new-minn-law-requires-crime-labs-to-meet-national-standards \|title=New Minn. law requires crime labs to meet national standards \|author=Collins, Jon \|work=MPRNews \|publisher=Minnesota Public Radio \|date=25 April 2014 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>, but national mandatory accreditation still doesn't exist. However, the Department of Justice and the National Institute of Standards & Technology announced plans in 2013 to finally create oversight bodies to oversee forensic science labs: the National Commission on Forensic Science (NCFS) and the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC).<ref name="DrahlForcing14">{{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> The NCFS adopted recommendation in 2015 for universal accreditation of "forensic science service providers," though they recognize challenges to this. For example, some research labs that offer forensic services only on rare occasion feel they don't have incentive to get accredited for forensic testing. Additionally, some accrediting bodies do not use widely accepted ISO/IEC standards.<ref name="NCFSUni15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.justice.gov/ncfs/file/477851/download \|title=Universal Accreditation \|author=National Commission on Forensic Science \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=30 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> OSAC has taken a slightly different approach, announcing in October 2015 that it "would like to engage with standards developing organizations (SDOs) that are currently or are willing to support the development of standards for the forensic science industry."<ref name="ReczekNIST15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nist.gov/forensics/osac/NIST-s-OSAC-is-Seeking-Standards-Developing-Organizations.cfm \|title=NIST's OSAC is Seeking Standards Developing Organizations who support Forensic Science Standards \|author=Reczek, Karen \|work=OSAC Home \|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology \|date=27 October 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>		Today in the United States despite NAS recommendations, as of yet no national accrediting or overseeing body exists for overseeing and enforcing standard procedures. Some states require accreditation while others do not. States like Missouri, North Carolina, and Minnesota have enacted laws making accreditation mandatory<ref name="MOLaw650">{{cite web \|url=http://www.moga.mo.gov/mostatutes/stathtml/65000000601.HTML \|title=Missouri Revised Statutes, Chapter 650, Department of Public Safety, Section 650.060.1 \|publisher=Missouri General Assembly \|date=28 August 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="A2LAMissouri">{{cite web \|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2015/04/prweb12642557.htm \|title=A2LA Forensic Science Accreditation Program Approved in Missouri \|work=PRWeb \|publisher=Vocus PRW Holdings, LLC \|date=09 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="OlsonAcc13">{{cite web \|url=https://ncforensics.wordpress.com/2013/03/14/accreditation-of-local-crime-labs/ \|title=Accreditation of local crime labs \|author=Olson, Sarah Rackley \|work=Forensic Science in North Carolina \|publisher=Indigent Defense Services of NC \|date=14 March 2013 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="CollinsNew14">{{cite web \|url=http://www.mprnews.org/story/2014/04/25/new-minn-law-requires-crime-labs-to-meet-national-standards \|title=New Minn. law requires crime labs to meet national standards \|author=Collins, Jon \|work=MPRNews \|publisher=Minnesota Public Radio \|date=25 April 2014 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>, but national mandatory accreditation still doesn't exist. However, the Department of Justice and the National Institute of Standards & Technology announced plans in 2013 to finally create oversight bodies to oversee forensic science labs: the National Commission on Forensic Science (NCFS) and the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC).<ref name="DrahlForcing14">{{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> The NCFS adopted recommendation in 2015 for universal accreditation of "forensic science service providers," though they recognize challenges to this. For example, some research labs that offer forensic services only on rare occasion feel they don't have incentive to get accredited for forensic testing. Additionally, some accrediting bodies do not use widely accepted ISO/IEC standards.<ref name="NCFSUni15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.justice.gov/ncfs/file/477851/download \|title=Universal Accreditation \|author=National Commission on Forensic Science \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=30 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> OSAC has taken a slightly different approach, announcing in October 2015 that it "would like to engage with standards developing organizations (SDOs) that are currently or are willing to support the development of standards for the forensic science industry."<ref name="ReczekNIST15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nist.gov/forensics/osac/NIST-s-OSAC-is-Seeking-Standards-Developing-Organizations.cfm \|title=NIST's OSAC is Seeking Standards Developing Organizations who support Forensic Science Standards \|author=Reczek, Karen \|work=OSAC Home \|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology \|date=27 October 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>

Shawndouglas: /* Further reading */ Added missing year

2016-03-16T21:19:44Z

Shawndouglas: /* Further reading */ Removed ref tag

2016-03-16T21:18:22Z

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2016-03-16T21:17:47Z

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2016-02-12T23:54:43Z

Added content written offline during wiki outage.

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2014-08-04T18:51:59Z

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	'''Forensic science''' (often shortened to '''forensics''') is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. Forensic scientists use a variety of special [[laboratory]] equipment to analyze forensic data for such interests.		'''Forensic science''' (often shortened to '''forensics''') is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. Forensic scientists use a variety of special [[laboratory]] equipment to analyze forensic data for such interests.

			<!---Place all category tags here-->
			[[Category:Branches of science]]

Shawndouglas: Created article stub.

2011-09-21T19:51:54Z

Created article stub.

New page

'''Forensic science''' (often shortened to '''forensics''') is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. Forensic scientists use a variety of special [[laboratory]] equipment to analyze forensic data for such interests.

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:34, 10 July 2017
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	In the United States in recent years, the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs has been a serious topic of discussion. At the turn of the twenty-first century, "a majority of the forensic laboratories in the United States [were] not accredited, and [had] not made the commitment to comply with consensus quality standards."<ref name="ArvizuFor00">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nlada.org/forensics/for_lib/Documents/1107453386.76/90ded0ef0fb5abe085256982004e0b8f%3FOpenDocument%26Highlight%3D0,eyewitness \|title=Forensic Labs: Shattering the Myth \|author=Arvizu, Janine \|work=The Champion \|publisher=National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers \|date=May 2000 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Only one accrediting body — the American Society of Criminal Laboratory Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB) — existed, membership was low (165 labs in May 2000), and 20 states didn't even have a single accredited lab. And some laboratory quality control experts such as Janine Arvizu found the technical rigor and independent nature of the ASCLD to be lacking.<ref name="ArvizuFor00" /><ref name="FischerTheFBI01">{{cite web \|url=http://www.kkc.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Whitehurst_GQ_The-FBIs-Dirty-Tricks-Jan-2001.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=The FBI's Junk Science \|work=GQ \|publisher=Advance Publications \|date=January 2001 \|pages=114–117, 148–149 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Questions were being asked of the legitimacy of the federal FBI crime labs as well as state-run labs such as the then new Jamaica, Queens crime lab in New York and the Houston crime lab.<ref name="FischerTheFBI01" /><ref name="MarzulliNYPD99">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/nypd-new-crime-lab-fails-major-inspection-article-1.849802 \|title=NYPD's New Crime Lab Fails Major Inspection \|author=Marzulli, John \|work=NY Daily News \|publisher=Daily News, L.P \|date=29 November 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LiptakNew04">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/05/us/new-doubt-cast-on-testing-in-houston-police-crime-lab.html \|title=New Doubt Cast on Testing in Houston Police Crime Lab \|author=Liptak, Adam; Blumenthal, Ralph \|work=The New York Times \|publisher=The New York Times Company \|date=05 August 2004 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> (Some revelations about the poor quality of FBI crime labs prior to 2000 wouldn't be revealed until 2015.<ref name="HsuFBI15">{{cite web \|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/fbi-overstated-forensic-hair-matches-in-nearly-all-criminal-trials-for-decades/2015/04/18/39c8d8c6-e515-11e4-b510-962fcfabc310_story.html \|title=FBI admits flaws in hair analysis over decades \|author=Hsu, Spencer S. \|work=The Washington Post \|publisher=Nash Holdings LLC \|date=18 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LithwickPseudo15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/04/fbi_s_flawed_forensics_expert_testimony_hair_analysis_bite_marks_fingerprints.single.html \|title=Pseudoscience in the Witness Box \|author=Lithwick, Dahlia \|work=Slate \|publisher=The Slate Group, LLC \|date=22 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>)		In the United States in recent years, the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs has been a serious topic of discussion. At the turn of the twenty-first century, "a majority of the forensic laboratories in the United States [were] not accredited, and [had] not made the commitment to comply with consensus quality standards."<ref name="ArvizuFor00">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nlada.org/forensics/for_lib/Documents/1107453386.76/90ded0ef0fb5abe085256982004e0b8f%3FOpenDocument%26Highlight%3D0,eyewitness \|title=Forensic Labs: Shattering the Myth \|author=Arvizu, Janine \|work=The Champion \|publisher=National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers \|date=May 2000 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Only one accrediting body — the American Society of Criminal Laboratory Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB) — existed, membership was low (165 labs in May 2000), and 20 states didn't even have a single accredited lab. And some laboratory quality control experts such as Janine Arvizu found the technical rigor and independent nature of the ASCLD to be lacking.<ref name="ArvizuFor00" /><ref name="FischerTheFBI01">{{cite web \|url=http://www.kkc.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Whitehurst_GQ_The-FBIs-Dirty-Tricks-Jan-2001.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=The FBI's Junk Science \|work=GQ \|publisher=Advance Publications \|date=January 2001 \|pages=114–117, 148–149 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> Questions were being asked of the legitimacy of the federal FBI crime labs as well as state-run labs such as the then new Jamaica, Queens crime lab in New York and the Houston crime lab.<ref name="FischerTheFBI01" /><ref name="MarzulliNYPD99">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/nypd-new-crime-lab-fails-major-inspection-article-1.849802 \|title=NYPD's New Crime Lab Fails Major Inspection \|author=Marzulli, John \|work=NY Daily News \|publisher=Daily News, L.P \|date=29 November 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LiptakNew04">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/05/us/new-doubt-cast-on-testing-in-houston-police-crime-lab.html \|title=New Doubt Cast on Testing in Houston Police Crime Lab \|author=Liptak, Adam; Blumenthal, Ralph \|work=The New York Times \|publisher=The New York Times Company \|date=05 August 2004 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> (Some revelations about the poor quality of FBI crime labs prior to 2000 wouldn't be revealed until 2015.<ref name="HsuFBI15">{{cite web \|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/fbi-overstated-forensic-hair-matches-in-nearly-all-criminal-trials-for-decades/2015/04/18/39c8d8c6-e515-11e4-b510-962fcfabc310_story.html \|title=FBI admits flaws in hair analysis over decades \|author=Hsu, Spencer S. \|work=The Washington Post \|publisher=Nash Holdings LLC \|date=18 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="LithwickPseudo15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/04/fbi_s_flawed_forensics_expert_testimony_hair_analysis_bite_marks_fingerprints.single.html \|title=Pseudoscience in the Witness Box \|author=Lithwick, Dahlia \|work=Slate \|publisher=The Slate Group, LLC \|date=22 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>)

	The U.S. Department of Justice's National Institute of Justice had previously in February 1999 published a review of needs for forensic science, though it stopped short of recommending mandatory accreditation of forensic labs, only saying [[t]he profession should accredit/certify forensic academic training programs/institutions."<ref name="NIJForensicFeb99">{{cite web \|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/173412.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=Forensic Sciences: Review of Status and Needs \|author=National Institute of Justice \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=February 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> With little reform in site, many of the major representatives of forensic science requested that Congress form a committee to again study the needs of the community and make formal recommendations. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) eventually released its report in 2009. Among its recommendations: "Laboratory accreditation and individual certification of forensic science professionals should be mandatory, and all forensic science professional should have access to a certification process." It went on to make minimum requirements for lab accreditation and professional certification, receiving support from some law enforcement officials and scientists in the community.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" /><ref name="FitzpatrickTheNeed09">{{cite journal \|url=http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1888&issue_id=92009 \|title=The Need for Mandatory Accreditation and Certification \|journal=The Police Chief \|author=Fitzpatrick, Frank; Martin, Kenneth \|volume=76 \|issue=9 \|year=September 2009 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Dwyer-MossFlawed13">{{cite journal \|title=Flawed Forensics and the Death Penalty: Junk Science and Potentially Wrongful Executions \|journal=Seattle Journal for Social Justice \|author=Dwyer-Moss, Jessica \|volume=11 \|issue=2 \|pages=757–812 \|url=http://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sjsj/vol11/iss2/10 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>		The U.S. Department of Justice's National Institute of Justice had previously in February 1999 published a review of needs for forensic science, though it stopped short of recommending mandatory accreditation of forensic labs, only saying "[t]he profession should accredit/certify forensic academic training programs/institutions."<ref name="NIJForensicFeb99">{{cite web \|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/173412.pdf \|format=PDF \|title=Forensic Sciences: Review of Status and Needs \|author=National Institute of Justice \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=February 1999 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> With little reform in site, many of the major representatives of forensic science requested that Congress form a committee to again study the needs of the community and make formal recommendations. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) eventually released its report in 2009. Among its recommendations: "Laboratory accreditation and individual certification of forensic science professionals should be mandatory, and all forensic science professional should have access to a certification process." It went on to make minimum requirements for lab accreditation and professional certification, receiving support from some law enforcement officials and scientists in the community.<ref name="SeigelForensic15" /><ref name="FitzpatrickTheNeed09">{{cite journal \|url=http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1888&issue_id=92009 \|title=The Need for Mandatory Accreditation and Certification \|journal=The Police Chief \|author=Fitzpatrick, Frank; Martin, Kenneth \|volume=76 \|issue=9 \|year=September 2009 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Dwyer-MossFlawed13">{{cite journal \|title=Flawed Forensics and the Death Penalty: Junk Science and Potentially Wrongful Executions \|journal=Seattle Journal for Social Justice \|author=Dwyer-Moss, Jessica \|volume=11 \|issue=2 \|pages=757–812 \|url=http://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sjsj/vol11/iss2/10 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>

	Today in the United States despite NAS recommendations, as of yet no national accrediting or overseeing body exists for overseeing and enforcing standard procedures. Some states require accreditation while others do not. States like Missouri, North Carolina, and Minnesota have enacted laws making accreditation mandatory<ref name="MOLaw650">{{cite web \|url=http://www.moga.mo.gov/mostatutes/stathtml/65000000601.HTML \|title=Missouri Revised Statutes, Chapter 650, Department of Public Safety, Section 650.060.1 \|publisher=Missouri General Assembly \|date=28 August 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="A2LAMissouri">{{cite web \|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2015/04/prweb12642557.htm \|title=A2LA Forensic Science Accreditation Program Approved in Missouri \|work=PRWeb \|publisher=Vocus PRW Holdings, LLC \|date=09 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="OlsonAcc13">{{cite web \|url=https://ncforensics.wordpress.com/2013/03/14/accreditation-of-local-crime-labs/ \|title=Accreditation of local crime labs \|author=Olson, Sarah Rackley \|work=Forensic Science in North Carolina \|publisher=Indigent Defense Services of NC \|date=14 March 2013 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="CollinsNew14">{{cite web \|url=http://www.mprnews.org/story/2014/04/25/new-minn-law-requires-crime-labs-to-meet-national-standards \|title=New Minn. law requires crime labs to meet national standards \|author=Collins, Jon \|work=MPRNews \|publisher=Minnesota Public Radio \|date=25 April 2014 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>, but national mandatory accreditation still doesn't exist. However, the Department of Justice and the National Institute of Standards & Technology announced plans in 2013 to finally create oversight bodies to oversee forensic science labs: the National Commission on Forensic Science (NCFS) and the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC).<ref name="DrahlForcing14">{{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> The NCFS adopted recommendation in 2015 for universal accreditation of "forensic science service providers," though they recognize challenges to this. For example, some research labs that offer forensic services only on rare occasion feel they don't have incentive to get accredited for forensic testing. Additionally, some accrediting bodies do not use widely accepted ISO/IEC standards.<ref name="NCFSUni15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.justice.gov/ncfs/file/477851/download \|title=Universal Accreditation \|author=National Commission on Forensic Science \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=30 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> OSAC has taken a slightly different approach, announcing in October 2015 that it "would like to engage with standards developing organizations (SDOs) that are currently or are willing to support the development of standards for the forensic science industry."<ref name="ReczekNIST15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nist.gov/forensics/osac/NIST-s-OSAC-is-Seeking-Standards-Developing-Organizations.cfm \|title=NIST's OSAC is Seeking Standards Developing Organizations who support Forensic Science Standards \|author=Reczek, Karen \|work=OSAC Home \|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology \|date=27 October 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>		Today in the United States despite NAS recommendations, as of yet no national accrediting or overseeing body exists for overseeing and enforcing standard procedures. Some states require accreditation while others do not. States like Missouri, North Carolina, and Minnesota have enacted laws making accreditation mandatory<ref name="MOLaw650">{{cite web \|url=http://www.moga.mo.gov/mostatutes/stathtml/65000000601.HTML \|title=Missouri Revised Statutes, Chapter 650, Department of Public Safety, Section 650.060.1 \|publisher=Missouri General Assembly \|date=28 August 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="A2LAMissouri">{{cite web \|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2015/04/prweb12642557.htm \|title=A2LA Forensic Science Accreditation Program Approved in Missouri \|work=PRWeb \|publisher=Vocus PRW Holdings, LLC \|date=09 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="OlsonAcc13">{{cite web \|url=https://ncforensics.wordpress.com/2013/03/14/accreditation-of-local-crime-labs/ \|title=Accreditation of local crime labs \|author=Olson, Sarah Rackley \|work=Forensic Science in North Carolina \|publisher=Indigent Defense Services of NC \|date=14 March 2013 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="CollinsNew14">{{cite web \|url=http://www.mprnews.org/story/2014/04/25/new-minn-law-requires-crime-labs-to-meet-national-standards \|title=New Minn. law requires crime labs to meet national standards \|author=Collins, Jon \|work=MPRNews \|publisher=Minnesota Public Radio \|date=25 April 2014 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>, but national mandatory accreditation still doesn't exist. However, the Department of Justice and the National Institute of Standards & Technology announced plans in 2013 to finally create oversight bodies to oversee forensic science labs: the National Commission on Forensic Science (NCFS) and the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC).<ref name="DrahlForcing14">{{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> The NCFS adopted recommendation in 2015 for universal accreditation of "forensic science service providers," though they recognize challenges to this. For example, some research labs that offer forensic services only on rare occasion feel they don't have incentive to get accredited for forensic testing. Additionally, some accrediting bodies do not use widely accepted ISO/IEC standards.<ref name="NCFSUni15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.justice.gov/ncfs/file/477851/download \|title=Universal Accreditation \|author=National Commission on Forensic Science \|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice \|date=30 April 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref> OSAC has taken a slightly different approach, announcing in October 2015 that it "would like to engage with standards developing organizations (SDOs) that are currently or are willing to support the development of standards for the forensic science industry."<ref name="ReczekNIST15">{{cite web \|url=http://www.nist.gov/forensics/osac/NIST-s-OSAC-is-Seeking-Standards-Developing-Organizations.cfm \|title=NIST's OSAC is Seeking Standards Developing Organizations who support Forensic Science Standards \|author=Reczek, Karen \|work=OSAC Home \|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology \|date=27 October 2015 \|accessdate=04 February 2016}}</ref>

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:19, 16 March 2016
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	* {{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html}}		* {{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html}}
	* {{cite book \|title=Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory \|author=Kirk, Paul L. \|publisher=Interscience Publishers \|location=New York, New York \|year=1953 \|pages=784}}		* {{cite book \|title=Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory \|author=Kirk, Paul L. \|publisher=Interscience Publishers \|location=New York, New York \|year=1953 \|pages=784}}
	* {{cite journal \|title=The evolution of forensic science: Progress amid the pitfalls \|journal=Stetson Law Review \|author=Peterson, Joseph L.; Leggett, Anna S. \|volume=36 \|pages=621–660 \|url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/the-evolution-of-forensic-science-progress-amid-the-pitfalls.pdf \|format=PDF}}		* {{cite journal \|title=The evolution of forensic science: Progress amid the pitfalls \|journal=Stetson Law Review \|author=Peterson, Joseph L.; Leggett, Anna S. \|volume=36 \|pages=621–660 \|year=2007 \|url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/the-evolution-of-forensic-science-progress-amid-the-pitfalls.pdf \|format=PDF}}
	* {{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946}}		* {{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946}}

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:18, 16 March 2016
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	* {{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html}}		* {{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html}}
	* {{cite book \|title=Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory \|author=Kirk, Paul L. \|publisher=Interscience Publishers \|location=New York, New York \|year=1953 \|pages=784}}		* {{cite book \|title=Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory \|author=Kirk, Paul L. \|publisher=Interscience Publishers \|location=New York, New York \|year=1953 \|pages=784}}
	* {{cite journal \|title=The evolution of forensic science: Progress amid the pitfalls \|journal=Stetson Law Review \|author=Peterson, Joseph L.; Leggett, Anna S. \|volume=36 \|pages=621–660 \|url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/the-evolution-of-forensic-science-progress-amid-the-pitfalls.pdf \|format=PDF}}~~</ref>~~		* {{cite journal \|title=The evolution of forensic science: Progress amid the pitfalls \|journal=Stetson Law Review \|author=Peterson, Joseph L.; Leggett, Anna S. \|volume=36 \|pages=621–660 \|url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/the-evolution-of-forensic-science-progress-amid-the-pitfalls.pdf \|format=PDF}}
	* {{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946}}		* {{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946}}

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:17, 16 March 2016
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	* {{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html}}		* {{cite journal \|title=Forcing Change in Forensic Science \|journal=Chemical & Engineering News \|author=Drahl, Carmen; Widener, Andrea \|volume=92 \|issue=19 \|pages=10–15 \|year=2014 \|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i19/Forcing-Change-Forensic-Science.html}}
	* {{cite book \|title=Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory \|author=Kirk, Paul L. \|publisher=Interscience Publishers \|location=New York, New York \|year=1953 \|pages=784}}		* {{cite book \|title=Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory \|author=Kirk, Paul L. \|publisher=Interscience Publishers \|location=New York, New York \|year=1953 \|pages=784}}
			* {{cite journal \|title=The evolution of forensic science: Progress amid the pitfalls \|journal=Stetson Law Review \|author=Peterson, Joseph L.; Leggett, Anna S. \|volume=36 \|pages=621–660 \|url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/the-evolution-of-forensic-science-progress-amid-the-pitfalls.pdf \|format=PDF}}</ref>
	* {{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946}}		* {{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIRQOssWbaoC&pg=PA1 \|title=Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques \|author=Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|location=Santa Barbara, California \|pages=307 \|year=2006 \|isbn=9781576071946}}